Forum Function
“Romanization by Addition and
Modification”
Pompeii and Herculaneum
Aerial and ground views of the
Forum remains
VIRTUAL
RECONSTRUCTION
Forum in the Late Samnite Period
Paul Zanker
Temple
of
Jupiter
Macellum
Shops
Houses
Temple
of
Apollo
Houses
Basilica
Administration
Comitium
Houses
Function of the Forum
• Ancient cities, historically developed central meeting
places, initially as a market for exchange of goods. As
cities became more complex, the function of the
meeting place took on greater significance in terms of
politics and religion
• The early Oscan settlement focused on the Triangular
forum
• Under Etruscan and Greek influence, the Temple of
Apollo was built along with the Basilica and Macellum.
The building of these reflected no comprehensive plan
of Forum function, rather it reflected the physical needs
of the population at that time.
• The Function of the Forum in Roman times is reflected
in the various types of its associated buildings,
economic, religious, political . The Forum space
however was equally vital in meeting the social needs of
its citizens. The space provided a focal point for patron
and client to be seen, important and ambitious
politicians to make speeches and above all, festivals
and processions to be seen by all its citizens.
• As well the rebuilding and beautification of the Forum
became a reflection of status and identity within the
Roman town.
Paul Zanker
Pompeii; Public and Private
Life
• “If we try to sum up the total effect of these separate
and quite heterogeneous phenomena, we cannot help
concluding that the half century from 80-30BC
represented a period of significant transformation.
Although the Hellenistic appearance of the town was
preserved on the whole, the major new buildings shifted
the accents. No coherent construction program
developed similar to the one that had taken place in the
previous century, for in Pompeii the colonists had
encountered a town with excellent facilities…They
erected a number of public buildings in the first decade
after their arrival, but these structures were separate
projects; they served less as a response to the new
inhabitants needs than as a means of cementing
Pompeii’s new identity. ….From then on sponsors and
donors had more in mind than simply the effect of their
gifts on their fellow citizens; their gaze was fixed on
places farther afield, especially Rome. The resulting
spirit of competition then spread from the elite to all
strata of society. On all sides we see the need for
exhibition and self promotion growing, reflected in public
statues and private tombs, ..”
“Romanization by Addition and
Modification”
• 1. The Temple of Jupiter at the head of the
forum had been enlarged and made into the
Capitoleum honoring the Roman Triad of
Jupiter, Juno and Minerva
• 2. Three insula blocks had been cleared for
new Roman projects, one of them a Temple
honoring Venus
• Forum Baths and Central Baths which were
still under construction in 79AD
• Two distant insulae had been fitted out with an
arena and a palestra
• In the central forum area the Romans
collected the shops that had lined and littered
the forum itself and put them in a separate
structure, the Macellum, attached to the Forum
with an impressive frontage.
The forum was a
pedestrian precinct,
much like many town
centres today, and as
such, no wheeled traffic
was allowed to enter. To
prevent carts and
wagons from entering
the forum, blocking
stones were set up and
these can be seen in the
photograph.
Temple of Jupiter- Capitoleum
Temple Design and
Modification
• Standing at the northern side of the Forum is
the Great Temple of Jupiter. Built in 150
B.C.E., it became Pompeii's main temple when
the city fell under the Roman Republic's
rule. A capitolium in structure and in pure
Italic style, the temple was constructed on a
high base, measuring 10 feet in height, 121
feet in length, and 56 feet in width, with a
double flight of stairs at its front. Inside the
temple lay the "cella", accessible only to the
priests, and which contained three niches at its
far end. Theses niches were occupied by
statues of Juno, Jupiter, and Minerva. In 62
C.E., the temple was seriously damaged in an
earthquake, and was in the process of being
repaired when Vesuvius erupted on August
24, 79 C.E.
Celebratory arches, built in opus latericium and faced with
marble were part of the transformation during the Augustan
period. Two were built either side of the Temple of Jupiter.
The one dedicated to Nero no longer remains
Entrance to the Macellum
Kirk Martini, an assistant professor of Architecture and Civil
Engineering at Virginia and an IATH Fellow, has been applying
terrestrial photogrammetry to create a 3-D model of the
Macellum
Macellum Design and
Modification
• The Macellum was a covered market. It had an open
area in the centre in which there was a circular building
which contained a pool of water. This pool most
probably contained fish which could be bought. Around
the edge of the Macellum were shopsor 'tabernae' and
some of the wall paintings which still survive indicate
what goods were sold here - they include fish, bread,
poultry and wine. At the back of the building there was a
shrine dedicated to members of the Imperial family.
• A market had existed on the site since the 2nd century
BC. It was rebuilt during the first half of the 1st century
AD and further work was carried out after the 62
earthquake
• Part of the Ist century work included a portico with
plinths of Imperial citizens, lining the entrance from the
Forum. The entrance walls were also lined with frescoes
in the 4th style, depicting scenes from mythology
Artistic recreation
Pattern of Reconstruction
There was a pressing priority to restore operation as soon as possible, reflected in the
rough ancient patching of Areas B, D, and E. Once basic human services were restored,
there was then a longer term priority to take advantage of the opportunity the rebuild
bigger and better. This opportunity appears to have been taken in the western shops, as an
independent addition to the building, plugging it into a larger renovation and rebuilding of
the Forum.
Kirk Martini
Post earthquake debate?
• The Macellum façade project and the
wall shared by the Sanctuary of the
Lares and the Eumachia building are
post 62 constructions. This rebuilding
emphatically refutes the theory of urban
decline
Sanctuary of the Lares and
Temple of Vespasian
Importance of the
Imperial Cult
Temple Design
• The Temple of Vespasian, and its
position in the forum, reflect the
importance of the Imperial cult in
Pompeii. The cella of the temple is on a
raised platform at the back, in the
centre of the building. The altar of the
templestands in front of the shrine.
• Built at the beginning of the Ist century AD,
and built of opus latericium, faced with
marble dates from the restoration work
following the 62 earthquake
• The white marble altar bears a scene
depicting sacrifice of a bull, customary in
the Imperial cult.
CAD MODEL OF THE Imperial Cult
Building
Eumachia Building
Building Design; Wool Sales or
Community building?
• the Eumachia building, is located south of the Temple of Vespasian. A
rich and very influential priestess of Venus named Eumachia and her son
dedicated this building to Concordia Augusta and Pietas. Concordia was
the Roman goddess of harmony.
• This building was extraordinarily lavish;built in opus lateritium and faced
with marble panels its interior was as well faced with the most expensive
kinds of marble, and the entrance to the building features an intricately
carved marble door frame believed to have been commissioned from a
workshop in Rome. The Eumachia building featured a statue of Concordia
with a gilded cornucopia and portrayed with the hairstyle and features of
Livia, the wife of Augustus (Zanker 93-97). The front of the building had
niches featuring images of famous men from Roman history, such as
Aeneas and Romulus (Laurence). Eumachia was a patron of the guild of
the fullones, who were fabric washers and dryers, and this building is
believed to have been used at least part of the time as a wool market
(Grant 199).
Dedication to Eumachia by the
Fullers Guild
Different InterpretationEumachia and Livia; patronage reaffirms status.
Style
Eumachia, daughter of Lucius [Eumachius], a
public priestess, in her own name and [in the name]
of her son, Marcus Numistrius Fronto, built at her
own expense the chalcidicum, the porticus, and the
crypta, and dedicated them to Concordia Augusta
and to Pietas.
Porticus Liviae-23BC
“…With his children ,friends, wife and
sister,have repaired all
.”
Civic Buildings
Building Design and
Modification
• At the south side of the forum were the
municipal offices or offices associated
with the local government of Pompeii.
• This building which has a marble floor
was most probably used for the
meetings of the decurion which was a
sort of local council.
• The Comitium housed the peoples
Assembly used for voting procedures
during elections
Basilica
Basilica Design and
Modification
The oldest extant building of its Hellenistic type, it was
built circa 190-120 BC.
Occupying over
n 16,000 ft, it was by far the most elaborate
pre Roman structure. Home of the court of justice and
m life, the volume of daily business is
centre of economic
evidenced by the
, five doors from the Forum.
Its central navel and two aisles were originally covered by
a sloping roof supported by the massive central Ionic
,
columns.
At the rear was; the tribunal where magistrates sat, reached
by wooden steps.
/ The side walls were decorated with
stucco reliefs Some traces of the original plasterwork in
the first style have survived
The date of the Building of a three sided portico is
debatable but some time, late Ist century BC
This building was largely destroyed in the earthquake of
62 AD and had not yet been rebuilt
Virtual Basilica
Temple of Apollo
Temple Design and
Modification
• Sacred ground since the sixth century BC
• The Temple of Apollo was constructed by the Samnites
on a site where the Greeks are thought to have
consecrated to Apollo's worship as early as the 5th
century B.C.E. The sacred area and temple was
surrounded by a portico which can still be seen
today. Like the Temple of Jupiter, the Temple of Apollo
was constructed in an Italic style, with a flight of steps
leading up a high base. Originally surrounded by 28
Corinthian columns, only two remain standing at it's
entrance.
At the far end of the temple wall, were painted scenes
from the Iliad. Statues of Apollo and Diana face
opposite each other within the temple, while statues of
Venus and Hermaphroditus were placed on the bases
of the entrance portico.
EXTANT REMAINS
Mensa Ponderaria
• This is the 'mensa ponderaria' or the
public weights and measures table.
This was used to check the accuracy of
the measures of the merchants who
sold their products in the forum.
• The weights and measures table was
first used by the Oscans before the
Romans came to Pompeii. When the
Romans arrived they modified the
measures and this is recorded in an
inscription on the table itself
Warehouse or Forum
Holitorium
Reconstruction of the Temple of
Jupiter in Imperial times
Honorific Monuments
• In addition to these new buildings, a number of honorific
monuments were added to the Forum. Augustus had
decreed that public places in the Roman Empire should
display statues of himself as well as of important
previous Roman rulers and generals in order to provide
inspiration and models of Roman greatness to all
Roman citizens In Pompeii, at least forty statues were
installed around the Forum. The old statues of civic
leaders from the Colonial Era were relocated away
from the south end of the Forum, through which many
people would have passed on their way from the Via
dell'Abbondanza and the Marine Gate, and replaced by
an arch and two large monuments to the imperial family.
On the north end of the Forum, large arches were built
on each side of the capitolum, and equestrian statues
believed to honor the imperial family were placed by the
steps of the te
Carroll William Westfall
Learning from Pompeii; The final report
of the PFR
• The form and face of the forum changed with
each political incarnation of the city.
• “Roman culture was distinguished from other
ancient cultures by the enlarged role the public
life played in private affairs. Roman society
was more extensively stratified and more
wealth and public honors were available to
each of the various grades….Architecture was
the most effective means of making this point.
The Roman city had more public buildings and
a more obvious public character in its public
places…Roman Pompeii used civic activity
and urban architecture to show that the
religious and civic life gave order and vitality to
private and commercial affairs….”
62-79AD Urban Renewal or
Decay?
•
•
“The conventional view is that the state of the Forum in 79AD
was still in disrepair from the impact of the earthquake of
62AD . The Pompeians had neglected the city’s buildings and
the Forum was nothing more than a builders yard. The alleged
absence of recovery has been seen as symptomatic of the
general state of economic depression at the site
The buildings themselves tell a different story. Newly
interpreted evidence points to a post earthquake plan for the
Forum, a design whose hallmarks are the unification and
monumentalizatiion of the urban centre. These goals were
achieved by blocking off the streets, linking facades,
upgrading building materials and emphasizing the entrance
that now provided major access to the Forum. It is possible
that such a program was beyond the means of the Pompeian
treasury. It is possible that assistance was given by Rome as
there is ample evidence that this was the policy. The current
perspective due to the work of the Forum Project is that rather
than being a symbol of economic depression its vigorous post
earthquake building program revealed a desire to build on a
grand scale.”
Penelope Allison
Forum of HerculaneumDecuman Gate leading to the forum, still
buried under volcanic rock
Underground Forum
Collegium Augustales
Design
College of the
Augustales
The headquarters for the cult of the
Imperial family, featuring stories
from the life of Hercules and
typical Style III architectural
decorations. In this Augustan Age
style a large central picture would
be flanked by imaginary, and
rather insubstantial, architectural
pictures
Basilica Design
• The building consisted of a large rectangular hall
divided into three sections by rows of columns in the
traditional layout
• At either end of the Basilica were recesses (exedra)
with frescoes of mythological characters, among them
Theseus and the Minotaur and The Finding of Telephus
showing a naked Hercules, legendary founder of the
town, recognising his baby son.
• In additional to the frescoes, both bronze and marble
statuary was found. At the entrance to the Basilica
stood two equestrian statues, one depicting the town's
major benefactor, the aforementioned Marcus Nonius Balbuswhilst the other was
of his son. Inside the Basilica were further statues of
the proconsul and his family (wife, father, mother and
two daughters) as well as statues of the emperors.
Reconstruction of the Basilica