Craft Production, the American
System of Manufacturing, and
Mass Production
ME 546 - Designing Product Families - IE 546
Timothy W. Simpson
Professor of Mechanical & Industrial
Engineering and Engineering Design
The Pennsylvania State University
University Park, PA 16802 USA
phone: (814) 863-7136
email: tws8@psu.edu
http://www.mne.psu.edu/simpson/courses/me546
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© T.
T. W.
W. S
SIMPSON
IMPSON
Overview of Today’s Class
• Motivating Vignette

Excerpt from J.B. Pine II, Mass Customization, Harvard
Business School Press, Boston, MA, 1993, pp. 3-5.
• What is Craft Production?

The “Skill” and the “Art” of Craft Production
• Craft Production Firms of Today

A visit to Aston Martin’s web site
• The American System of Manufacturing

Principles of the American System of Manufacturing
• Introduction to Mass Production

Principles of the Mass Production
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© T. W. SIMPSON
What is Craft Production?
• Craft production is characterized by:

Highly skilled work force; knowledge of design, machining,
and fitting learned through apprenticeship.

Artisans with the skills and know-how to turn raw materials
into finished goods; not only an art, but a source of pride.

Decentralized organizations where owner is in direct contact
with everyone—customers, employers, and suppliers.

General-purpose machine tools to drill, grind, cut, etc., wood
and metal.

Lack of economies of scale: cost to make 200,000 cars only
slightly less than cost to make 10 cars.

Very low production volume: 1000 or fewer automobiles a
year; maybe 50 of the same design, but no two exactly alike
because of fitting process.
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© T. W. SIMPSON
Why the Fitting Problems?
• In the 1890s:
Contractors did not use standard gauging systems.
 Machine tools could not cut hardened steel.

• Contractors used slightly different gauges and ran
parts through an oven to harden the surfaces.
• Parts frequently warped in the oven and needed further
machining to regain original shape.
• Dimensions where “approximate”:
Parts had to be filed until they fit together.
 Start with two parts, file and add third, etc, until the whole
vehicle was complete.

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© T. W. SIMPSON
The End Result...
• “Dimensional Creep”

No two cars were ever the same since the dimensions varied
from one car to the next even though manufactured from the
same blueprints.
• However…

Manufacturers catered to the rich who had chauffeurs and
mechanics to drive and fix the cars.

Cost, driving ease, and simple maintenance were not primary
concerns; only speed and customization (e.g., special body or
styling).
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© T. W. SIMPSON
Craft Production Firms Today
• There are some craft production firms still operating.
Focus on tiny niches, usually upper, luxury end of market.
 Buyers who want a unique image and opportunity to deal
directly with factory.
 Make agreements with larger firms to gain specialized
expertise in areas of technological development.

• Do you know any successful craft production firms?







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© T. W. SIMPSON
Example: Aston Martin
http://www.astonmartin.com/
• Aston Martin has made 14,000 cars
over the past 80 years.
• They average 1 automobile per day.
• Skilled panel beaters make the aluminum
body panels by pounding sheets of
aluminum with wooden mallets.
“Aston Martin promises owners an exclusive, exhilarating
adventure in an individually produced, true British sports car.”
Aston Martin V8 Volante
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Aston Martin V8 Le Mans Vantage
© T. W. SIMPSON
Aston Martin: The Company
• The following are excerpts from http://www.astonmartin.com/
“Founded in 1914 by Lionel Martin and Robert Bamford in a small West
London workshop, Aston Martin has grown over more than 80 years to
become a world-renowned manufacturer of the finest, exclusive, luxury sports
cars. Now with financial and technological security and with a strong
customer focus, Aston Martin faces the next Millennium with confidence and
eager anticipation. At its traditional base in Newport Pagnell and the new
DB7 facility in Bloxham, Aston Martin continues to instill as much care and
attention into creating cars as it did over 80 years ago.”
Lionel Martin
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Robert Bamford
© T. W. SIMPSON
Aston Martin: Craftsmanship
“Every Aston Martin is hand built by men and women who care. Their
dedication is in the detail, and the very senses that craft and hone every
Aston Martin - sight, feel and touch – live on in the finished car, an enduring
and intimate reminder of rare skills. Aston Martin engineering is a very
human endeavour which has to satisfy the emotions and the intellect of
builder and owner alike.
The creation of every Aston Martin is a consummate coalition of eye
and experience, heart and instinct. Time isn't an enemy, it is a friend. There's
time enough. Time to perfect and be right in order to maintain standards that
are legendary around the world.
When commissioning an Aston Martin, personal expression is only
limited by the imagination. Customers are encouraged to take time in
selecting colours and textures in the same way and with the same attention to
detail as the craftsmen who build the car. The indulgence of blending the
finest materials such as Connolly leather, polished veneers and Wilton carpet
is an experience which every Aston Martin owner is able to enjoy and savour.
As a result, very few cars are the same; each one an individual and
unique statement of personal choice.”
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© T. W. SIMPSON
Aston Martin: A Unique Family
“It is doubtful if any car maker has drawn as much strength from its
people and friends as Aston Martin. Owners, employees and admirers are
enthusiasts to the core, an extended family that stretches around the globe.
All keep faith with a rare passion.
The sense of family is strong at Aston Martin with a number of
father/son teams employed in our workshops. Owner's sons have grown up
alongside their father's Aston Martin and later become owners themselves.
But it is more than that. The whole company is a family; a family into which
you are welcomed when you become an owner.
In fact owning an Aston Martin is like being part of one of the most
exclusive clubs in the world. In more than 80 years a little over 14,000 cars
have been made and it says much of our company and our customers that
some three quarters of them are still in use and we take a keen interest in
every one.
Ours is a small company producing cars to an exceptional standard.
Customers regularly watch their cars being built and talk to the craftsmen
involved. Indeed we extend an open invitation to all customers to take part in
the creation of their own unique Aston Martin.
It is part of the reason owners are so passionate about Aston Martin they feel part of the history, part of the racing heritage, part of the family.”
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© T. W. SIMPSON
Origins of the American System of Manufacturing
• In 1785, Thomas Jefferson was the minister to France.
• He played a pivotal role in planting seeds for the ASM
in a report to Congress on France’s musket production:
“An improvement is made here in the construction of the musket which it
may be interesting to Congress to know, should they at any time propose
to procure any. It consists in the making every part of them so exactly
alike that what belongs to any one may be used for every other musket in
the magazine. The government here as examined and approved the
method, and is establishing a large manufactory for this purpose. As yet
the inventor [Honore Blanc] has only completed the lock of the musket on
this plan. He will proceed immediately to have the barrel, stock and their
parts executed in the same way. Supposing that it might be useful to the
U.S., I went to the workman. He presented me with 50 locks taken to
pieces and arranged in components. I put several together myself, taking
pieces at hazard as they came to hand, and they fitted in the most perfect
manner. The advantages of this, when arms need repair, are evident.”
(Hounshell, 1984)
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© T. W. SIMPSON
The Key: Interchangeable Parts
• Journey toward part interchangeability was thus
initiated in 1765.
• French general Jean-Baptiste Gribeauval is credited as
the founder of the concept of part interchangeability:
“The uniformity system, Gribeauval reasoned, would allow
complete interchangeability in the French military; parts of
small arms and artillery pieces could be easily interchanged,
and arms themselves could be interchanged as readily as
soldiers could be switched.”
(Hounshell, 1984)
• It would take 100 years to realize Gribeauval’s vision.
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© T. W. SIMPSON
Eli Whitney: Cotton Gins and Firearms
• In January 1798, Whitney won a contract from the U.S.
government to produce 10,000 muskets in 2 years.

$5000 paid up front; $5000 after factory preparations
• Whitney did not have the technical or financial knowhow to carry out the terms of the contract.
Running his cotton gin business ruined him:
– quality of gins was poor
– inept at manufacturing machinery
 “…this contract saved me from ruin” Whitney told a friend.

• Record annual output at Springfield armory 5000
muskets in their first ten years.
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© T. W. SIMPSON
Eli Whitney (cont.)
• Whitney envisioned “new” manufacturing machinery
“moved by water” for forging, rolling, boring, etc.
• By mid-1800, Whitney had not delivered a single
musket to the government.
• Whitney gave a “demonstration” in Jan. 1801 (eight
months prior to actual delivering any firearms):
Assembled 10 different locks to the same musket using only a
screwdriver.
 Took care, however, to interchange only assembled locks, not
the lock parts.

• His demonstration was a sham, but it earned him
additional time and money; contract finally met in 1809.
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© T. W. SIMPSON
Simeon North: Production Process Improvements
• In Oct. 1798, North received a contract to manufacture
500 “horse” pistols from the U.S. war department.
• In Feb. 1800, he was awarded another contract for
1500 more pistols; first contract still not completed.
• In 1808, he received yet another contract:
“To make my contract for pistols advantageous to the United States and to
myself I must go to a great proportion of the expense before I deliver any
pistols. I find that by confining a workman to one particular limb of the
pistol until he has made two thousand, I save at least one quarter of his
labor, to what I should provided [that] I finish them by small quantities; and
the work will be as much better as it is quicker made.” (Hounshell, 1984)
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© T. W. SIMPSON
Simeon North (cont.)
• North discovered two founding principles of American
System of Manufacturing and Mass Production:
1. Proper division of labor results in lower costs.
–
using unskilled, less costly labor to perform repetitive operations while
reserving the higher paid for highly skilled tasks, results in increased
output and lower costs without sacrificing quality
2. Every task involves a “learning curve.”
–
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in production of large lots, workers can increase their production
speeds gradually if they use the knowledge gained by repeating the
manufacturing operation continuously.
© T. W. SIMPSON
Simeon North (cont.)
• In 1813, contracted to produce 20,000 pistols in 5 years.

For the first time in history, the contract specified:
“the component parts of the pistols, are to correspond so
exactly that any limb or part of one pistol may be fitted to any
other pistol of the twenty thousand.” (Hounshell, 1984)
• Demand required manufacturing process be redefined.
In 1816, North requested another $50,000.
 Instead of a pattern, North was using a lock as a gauge to
produce the parts that comprised the lock assembly, eliminating
the need to file parts until they fit together.
 North credited with developing first milling machine and other
special purpose machines to improve production efficiency.

• Previously, a single entity producing 20,000 pistols was
unthinkable; design changes later derailed his efforts.
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John Hall: Gauges
• In Dec. 1814, Hall was asked to deliver 200 breechloading rifles (invented in 1811) by 1815; he declined.
• In 1815, Hall felt his facility was at the point to mass
produce breechloaders.
Rejected his bid for 1000 rifles
at $40.00 each; settled for 100
rifles at $25.00 each.
 Delivered rifles in Nov. 1817, and the soldiers loved them.
 Later sub-contracted to produce 4 test rifles for Federal
Armory at Harpers Ferry; cost $200 each.

• In 1819, received contract for 1000 breechloaders
Hall received a monthly salary and $1.00 per rifle.
 Began manufacturing in April 1820; missed Sept. 1821
delivery date and did not complete order until Dec. 1824.

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John Hall (cont.)
• Hall made extensive use of gauges, metal- and woodworking machines, and fixtures to manufacture
accurate parts inexpensively.
• In 1828, North was awarded a contract to produce
5000 breechloading rifles at different armory.
Gave North samples of Hall’s breechloaders and asked him to
duplicate them without measuring gauges or fixtures.
 Parts did not interchange with Hall’s until 1834.

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Samuel Colt and Elisha Root: Specialized Machines
• Colt met Root in 1829 when he was 15 years old.

Root was being hailed as “one of the brightest young
engineers in America.”
• In 1849, Colt hired Root at double his previous wages
Root became both factory superintendent and chief engineer.
 Root previously employed at Collins Axe Factory where he
learned die-forging and built specialized machines to reduce
manual operations.

• Root revised layout of Colt’s factory, creating:
a new configuration that decomposed machining operations
into smaller, more tightly integrated processes;
 simplified operations and new machines to fill gaps in
production sequence; and
 factories within factories to improve efficiency.

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Samuel Colt and Elisha Root (cont.)
• In 1855, a reporter noted almost 400 different
machines at work; …357 distinct machining operations,
ignoring some screw making, for each revolver.
• They believed that uniform parts that required some
fitting were not detrimental; focused on improving
production process instead.
1. Workers filed and fitted machined parts together while soft.
2. Assembled components then stamped with serials numbers.
3. The arm was then taken apart, and the parts hardened.
4. After hardening, the parts with same numbers were refitted.
• His factory became largest private armory in the world.

Manufactured 200,500 Model 1860 Army revolvers alone from
1860 to 1873.
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© T. W. SIMPSON
The American System of Manufacturing
• ASM is the “factory system” that developed during the
Industrial Revolution in the U.S. and later half of 1800s.
• Commodity output per capita grew 2% between 1875
and 1899 due to ASM (prior to 1875, growth rate was
0.3%).
• Eight (8) characteristics of ASM are:
1. Interchangeable parts
2. Specialized machines
3. Reliance on suppliers
4. Focus on process of production
5. Division of labor
6. Skills of American workers
7. Flexibility
8. Continuous technological
improvement
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© T. W. SIMPSON
ASM #1: Interchangeable Parts
In Craft Production:
Individually fitted to each of the other parts during manufacturing
 Part edges had to be filed down, fit tested, re-filing, etc.
 Craftsmen each had their own gauges
 Process was time-consuming and labor intensive

In American System of Manufacturing:
Parts were made with tight adherence to dimensions
 Standard gauges were agreed upon within factory and between
factory and suppliers
 Simplified production process
 Saved enormous amounts of labor and time
 Facilitated repair and maintenance of products

NOTE: Ford insisted that every part use the same gauging system all the way
through the entire manufacturing process, resulting in huge payoff in the form of
savings on assembly costs. He was the first one to realize this cause-and-effect
relationship and pursued it with religious zeal.
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© T. W. SIMPSON
ASM #2: Specialized Machines
In Craft Production:

General purpose machines adapted for numerous functions.
In American System of Manufacturing:
Necessary to produce tight tolerances required to eliminate
hand fitting.
 Systems of gauges and fixtures to ensure exact
interchangeability.
 References points design in parts and fixtures design for
reference points.

NOTE: Innovations (1) and (2) alone greatly improved
quality, uniformity, and productivity of American
manufacturers.
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ASM #3: Reliance on Suppliers
In Craft Production:

Machines developed and built in-house.
In American System of Manufacturing:

Relinquished building of specialized machines to burgeoning
machine tool industry, allowing them to:
– focus more fully on their own production problems,
– avoid cost of machine development, and
– share technological advances with machine tool suppliers.

Same advantages applied to raw material suppliers and noncritical parts as well.
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© T. W. SIMPSON
ASM #4: Focus on Process of Production
In Craft Production:

Provide isolated craftsman with all the materials needed to
manufacture a product.
In American System of Manufacturing:

Functional organization of the factors, where material and
WIP were moved from one station to another  batches.

Increased supervision and worker accountability for
schedules, quality, and material usage.
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ASM #5: Division of Labor
In Craft Production:

Craftsman did it all.
In American System of Manufacturing:

Resulted from focus on production process improvements.

Belief: focusing workers on only a piece of the part would
make them more efficient.

Craftsman displeased, but efficiency and productivity
increased  wages increased.
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© T. W. SIMPSON
ASM #6: Skills of American Workers
In Craft Production:

Highly skilled craftsman.
In American System of Manufacturing:
Many new industrial workers came from farms and were
accustomed to working with tools and devising ways to make
their tasks easier.
 Machines found to enhance skills of workers rather than
replace them.
 In 1868, it was noted in a British Parliamentary Report that
the American worker,

“understands everything that you say to him as well as a man from a
college in England would; he helps the employer by his own acuteness
and intelligence …greatly assisting his employer by thoroughly
understanding what is the change that is needed and helping him on
the road towards it.”
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ASM #7: Flexibility
In Craft Production:

Rigid organization in European factories; workers concerned
with personal advancement and material welfare (e.g., wages,
class systems).
In American System of Manufacturing:

Maintained high degree of flexibility by focusing on process
rather than individual (i.e., make process more efficient and
productive  make more money).

Particularly true in machine tool industry; skill, know-how, and
flexibility served to increase pool of skills/technical knowledge
which furthered technological advances.
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ASM #8: Continuous Technological Improvement
In Craft Production:

Incremental advances as craftsman customized one product
after another.
In American System of Manufacturing:

Result of all of the above, i.e., (1) through (7).

Driven by American entrepreneurs who were great inventors,
innovators, and imitators, e.g., Colonel Samuel Colt, an
armsmaker who introduced numerous product development
and improvement initiatives.
NOTE: As a result of these principles, ASM became an extremely
successful method of production by the late nineteenth century
and was an object of envy among European rivals.
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© T. W. SIMPSON
From ASM to Mass Production
• From ASM, mass production (MP) utilized principles:
1.
2.
4.
5.
Interchangeable parts
Specialized machines
Focus on production process
Division of labor
• What additional principles were needed for MP?







Flow
Focus on low cost and low prices
Economies of scale
Product standardization
Degree of specialization
Focus on operational efficiency
Hierarchical organization with professional managers
Vertical integration

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MP Principle #1: Flow
Prior:

Worker physically moved from one station to the next.
In Mass Production:

Work was moved from one worker to the next.
• By October 1913, labor time
spent making one car dropped
from 12 hrs, 8 min to 2 hrs, 35
min (78% reduction).
• Six months later, it dropped
to just over 1.5 hrs with 1000
Model T’s rolling off the
assembly line each day.
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A Day’s Production, Highland Park, 1913
(Cammarano, 1997)
© T. W. SIMPSON
MP Principle #1: Flow (cont.)
Ford’s original assembly
line cost $3500 and was
essentially two strips of
metal—one under each
car wheel—that moved
the length of the factory
floor mounted on a belt.
At the end of the line the
strips rolled under the
floor and returned to
beginning much like
conveyor belts or airport
people movers of today.
One of Ford’s “experiments,” an early version
of conveyor system that was not yet powered.
(Cammarano, 1997)
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Equipment needed:
belt and electric motor
© T. W. SIMPSON
MP Principle #2: Focus on Low Cost and Low Prices
Prior:

In AMS, this was not a concern.

The focus was on better quality and higher output, typically
charging more for products.
In Mass Production:

Shifted focus in order to create products for the “masses”.

Created the need for assembly line flow.

Gave rise to...
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MP Principle #3: Economies of Scale
Prior:

Increased output by adding more machines and more workers
in the same ratio had minimal impact on cost.
In Mass Production:
The larger the enterprise and the greater the output, the lower
its costs  amortize fixed costs over greater output.
 Increased inputs and throughput of machines and productivity
of workers so that fewer workers were needed per unit
produced  increased fixed costs and capital-to-labor ratio,
but lowered costs per unit.
 Beginnings of a reinforcing cycle: As prices were lowered,
people could buy more product, resulting in greater sales and
greater production, even lower prices, and so on.

• In 1908, 5986 Model T’s selling for $850 each; by 1916, 577,036
Model T’s selling for $360. Production grew to 2 million by 1923.
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© T. W. SIMPSON
MP Principle #3: Economies of Scale (cont.)
Year
1908
1909
1910
1911
1912
1913
1914
1915
1916
Price
$850
$950
$780
$690
$600
$550
$490
$440
$360
Model T Production
N.A.
13,840
20,727
53,488
82,388
189,088
230,788
394,788
585,388
Sales
5,986
12,292
19,293
40,402
78,611
182,809
260,720
260,720
577,036
“Every time you reduce the price of the car without reducing the quality,
you increase the possible number of purchasers. There are many men
who will pay $360 for a car who would not pay $440. We had in round
numbers 500,000 buyers of cars on the $440 basis, and I figure that on
the $360 basis we can increase the sales to possible 800,000 cars for
the year—less profit on each car, but more cars, more employment of
labor, and in the end we get all the profit we ought to make.” —H. Ford.
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MP Principle #4: Product Standardization
Prior:

Individually crafted goods.
In Mass Production:
Produce standardized goods for homogenous markets.
 Why was this possible?

American’sdid
didnot
nothave
haveclass
classdistinctions
distinctionsthat
thatEuropeans
Europeanshad;
had;thus,
thus,
Americans
they did not have to differentiate themselves with their purchases.
– Income distribution was more equitable in U.S., and people clustered
around similar desires and needs.
– The American market was much newer.
 Seller’s market wherein companies dictated what customers accepted
as standardized products.
–
• Reinforcing cycle: Low costs of standardized products  low
prices  maintained market homogeneity because the gap
between the cost of MP goods and customized goods grew as
prices fell  people clustered around homogeneous products.
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MP Principle #5: Degree of Specialization
Prior:

Craftsmen were skilled in
all aspects of product
realization.
In Mass Production:

Under close direction
of supervisor, workers
performed smallest of
functions, over and
over, in assembly line.

Workers became very
specialized at their
tasks.
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Ford V-8 Engine Assembly Line Workers
(Cammarano, 1997)
© T. W. SIMPSON
MP Principle #5: Degree of Specialization (cont.)

Specialization applied to machinery as well  specialized
functions provided means to produce greater numbers of
sophisticated parts.
A drilling and reaming machine drilled
45 holes in four sides of engine block.

Up to 15 engine blocks could be
precision-machined at one time.
As production processes were broken down into smaller and
smaller tasks, these tasks became easier to automate!
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MP Principle #5: Degree of Specialization (cont.)
• When factory needed a larger part because of a
specification change (as in 1927 when Model A was
redesigned), Ford often discarded the machinery along
with the old part or model.
• Specialization significantly reduced cycle time:

Using AMS, task cycle was 514 minutes for one worker who
would, e.g., put all of the mechanical parts— wheels, springs,
motor, transmission, generator—on a chassis.

With interchangeable parts, and by having each worker
complete one task, cycle time dropped to 2.3 minutes.

With the moving assembly line, cycle time dropped to 1.19
minutes  completed same task ~350 times per day.
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MP Principle #6: Focus on Operational Efficiency
Prior:

Focus on production process and equipment not operation.
In Mass Production:

Driven by the fact that if
anything went wrong with a
machine or workers or pace
of operations, then unit
costs would rise rapidly.

Buffers and queues
introduced throughout the
factory to maintain
productivity
THE LINE NEVER STOPPED!
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Magneto Assembly Line, 1913
• Working at benches: 20 min
• Assembly line: 13 min, 10 sec
• Raised line and set chain rate:
5 man-minutes each
© T. W. SIMPSON
MP Principle #7: Hierarchical Organization
with Professional Managers
Prior:

Craft production firms were family-owned with few full-time
managers and little administrative structure.
In Mass Production:


Hierarchical organizations developed to control increasing
complexity of day-to-day operation of business.
Advent of “Scientific Management” or “Taylorism” (after
Frederick W. Taylor) involved meticulous time and motion
studies to find and eliminate any and all inefficiencies.

Led to elimination of knowledge and skills as well classifying,
tabulating, and reducing all worker knowledge to rules, laws,
and formulae.

Drove managers to focus on planning the work of their
workers, increasing their specialization, decreasing their
skills, and eventually replacing many of them with machinery.
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© T. W. SIMPSON
MP Principle #8: Vertical Integration
Prior:

Craft producers were not as concerned with other aspects of
the product realization process.
In Mass Production:

Grew out of need to control production and influenced by
hierarchical organizations.

In order to keep assembly lines busy, needed:
1. adequate raw materials and supplies, and
2. a stable (and homogeneous) marketplace to sell goods.

Mass producers became concerned with entire flow of
materials from their raw state through production and
distribution.
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The Epitome: Ford’s River Rouge Plant in 1928
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MP Principle #8: Vertical Integration (cont.)
• Raw materials came in one gate and finished cars
went out the other.

Rubber plantation in Brazil

Iron mines in Minnesota

Iron ore and coal shipped
through the Great Lakes

Railroad to connect Ford
facilities in Detroit region

Steel mill and glass factory

Numerous metal cutting
and forming activities
River Rough Plant Assembly Line
(Cammarano, 1997)
It took 48 hours from a barge unloading iron ore at the
dock to a completed automobile rolling off the line.
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The Paradigm of Mass Production
• In time, mass production became a paradigm for doing
business.
• What is a paradigm?

It is “an accepted model or pattern” that establishes an
informational framework and set of rules by which its
practitioners view the world (Kuhn, 1986).
• Paradigm of mass production has the shared goal of:
Developing, producing, marketing, and delivering
goods and services at prices low enough that nearly
everyone can afford them.
• More simply, mass production is efficiency through
stability and control.
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References
• Abernathy, W. J. and Corcoran, J. E., 1983, "Relearning from the Old
Masters: Lessons to the American System of Manufacturing," Journal
of Operations Management, August, pp. 7,8,11.
• Cammarano, J. J., 1997, Lessons To Be Learned Just In Time,
Engineering & Management Press, Norcross, GA.
• Emerson, H. P. and Naehring, D. C. E., 1988, Origins of Industrial
Engineering: The Early Years of the Profession, Engineering &
Management Press, Norcross, GA.
• Hounshell, D. A., 1984, From the American System to Mass
Production 1800-1932, John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MD.
• Lacey, R., 1986, Ford: The Men and the Machine, Little Brown, New
York.
• Pine, B. J., II, 1993, Mass Customization: The New Frontier in
Business Competition, Harvard Business School Press, Boston, MA.
• Womack, J. P., Jones, D. T. and Roos, D., 1990, The Machine that
Changed the World, Rawson Associates, New York.
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© T. W. SIMPSON
Feedback on Today’s Class
On a piece of paper, write:
1. one thing that you learned or liked about today’s
lecture
2. one thing that still puzzles you after today’s lecture or
a suggestion on how to improve the lecture
Your comments can be anonymous.
Hand in the paper to me on your way out.
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© T. W. SIMPSON