CHAPTER 10
Early Childhood:
Social and Emotional
Development
Learning Outcomes
LO1 Describe the dimensions of child rearing
and the styles of parenting.
LO2 Explain how siblings, birth order, peers, and
other factors affect social development during
early childhood.
LO3 Discuss personality and emotional
development during early childhood, focusing
on the self, Erikson’s views, and fears.
LO4 Discuss the development of gender roles
and sex differences.
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TRUTH OR FICTION?
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T-F Parents who are restrictive and demand mature
behavior wind up with rebellious children, not mature
children.
T-F Firstborn children are more highly motivated to
achieve than later-born children.
T-F Children who are physically punished are more
likely to be aggressive than children who are not.
T-F Children who watch 2-4 hours of TV a day will see
8,000 murders and another 1000,000 acts of violence by
the time they have finished elementary school.
T-F Children mechanically imitate the aggressive
behavior they view in the media.
T-F The most common fear among preschoolers is fear
of social disapproval.
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LO1 Dimensions of Child
Rearing
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Dimensions of Child Rearing
• Two Broad Dimensions
– (1) Warmth-Coldness: reflective of their own parents,
their own beliefs about child rearing practices, and may
have genetic factors involved
• Warm Parents
– Affectionate, caring, supportive, less physical discipline
• Children of Warm Parents
– Develop internal standards of conduct, sense of
morality, conscience, warmth relates to social and
emotional well-being
• Cold Parents
– Don’t enjoy their children, show few affectionate
feelings, complain about child’s behavior
• Children of Cold Parents
– Do not fare as well in social and emotional
development
Dimensions of Child Rearing
• Two Broad Dimensions, con’t.
– (2) Restrictiveness-Permissiveness
• Restrictive Parents
– Impose rules and watch children closely
• Children of Restrictive Parents
– Consistent control and firm enforcement of rules
combined with strong support and affection can have
positive outcomes.
– If restrictiveness is paired with physical punishment,
interference, or intrusiveness, it can cause
disobedience, rebelliousness, and lower levels of
cognitive development.
• Permissive Parents
– Supervise less closely; allow child to be “natural”; may
allow displays of aggression
Dimensions of Child Rearing
• How Parents Enforce Restrictions
• Teach “reasoning”: aim is
to teach child to generate
desirable behavior on own
volition
– Power-Assertive Methods:
• Include physical punishment
and denial of privileges
• Is associated with lower peer
acceptance, poor grades, antisocial behavior, less
development of internal standards, often related to
aggression and delinquency
– Withdrawal of Love Methods:
• Punish by ignoring or isolating child; loss of love more
threatening than physical punishment
• May foster compliance but also instills guilt and anxiety
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– Inductive Methods:
Parenting Styles (BAUMRIND)
How Parents Transmit Values and Standards
• (1) Authoritative Parenting
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Highly restrictive; make strong demands for maturity
Tempered with reason, strong support, and love
Have clear expectations but show respect and warmth
Children show:
• Self reliance, independence, high self-esteem, high levels
of activity and exploratory behavior, and social competence
• Highly motivated to achieve and do well in school
Parenting Styles (BAUMRIND)
How Parents Transmit Values and Standards
• (2) Authoritarian Parenting
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Value obedience for its own sake
Have strict guidelines for right and wrong
Demand compliance without question
Controlling; enforce standards with force
Do not communicate well with children, nor respect the
child’s point of view
Parenting Styles (BAUMRIND)
How Parents Transmit Values and Standards
• (2) Authoritarian Parenting, cont
– Generally cold and rejecting
– Children Show:
• Less competence socially and academically; as teens may
be conforming and obedient but have low self-esteem and
low self-reliance
• Sons:
– Relatively hostile and defiant
• Daughters:
– Low in independence and dominance
Parenting Styles (BAUMRIND)
How Parents Transmit Values and Standards
• (3) Permissive-Indulgent Parenting
– Low in demands and attempts to control
– Easygoing and unconventional
– Permissiveness accompanied by high nurturance,
warmth, and support
Parenting Styles (BAUMRIND)
How Parents Transmit Values and Standards
• (4) Rejecting-Neglecting Parenting
– Low in demands for mature behavior and attempts to
control child
– Low in support and responsiveness
– Children are:
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Least competent, responsible, and mature
Less competent in school
Show more misconduct and substance abuse
Fairly high in social competence and self-confidence
Table 10.1 – Baumrind’s Patterns of Parenting
Parenting Styles (BAUMRIND)
How Parents Transmit Values and Standards
• Effects of the Situation and the Child on Parenting
Styles
– Situation:
• Life stressors contribute to use of power-assertive
techniques.
– Characteristics of the Child:
• If child is aggressive, parents more likely to use powerassertive techniques.
• Parents prefer power assertion to induction when they
believe that children understand the rules they break and
are capable of acting appropriately.
Table 10.2 – Advice for Parents in Guiding Young
Children’s Behavior
LO2 Social Behaviors
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Social Behaviors
• Influence of Siblings
• Providing physical care;
emotional support; giving
advice; being a role model
• In many cultures, older girls
care for younger siblings.
– Positive aspects:
• Helps develop social skills; teaches cooperation and
nurturing
– Negative aspects:
• Can cause conflicts; controlling and competitive behaviors
• There is more conflict if parents show favoritism.
– Parents often urge children to stop fighting.
– But ordinary conflicts can also enhance development
of social skills and development of self-identity
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– Functions:
Social Behaviors
• Influence of Siblings, cont.
– Adjusting to the Birth of a Sibling
• Often a source of stress causing changes in family
relationships
• Child may feel displaced and resentful due to the time
and attention required by the newborn
• Children may show mixture of negative and positive
reactions.
– Regression: returning to baby-like behaviors and
increased naughtiness
– But may also show increased independence and maturity,
such as doing more for themselves (dressing, feeding, etc.)
and helping to care for newborn
• Parents can help the young child cope with new arrivals
by explaining in advance what to expect.
Social Behaviors
• Influence of Siblings, cont.
– Birth Order
• Personality and achievement are linked to birth order.
• Parents usually more relaxed and flexible with later-born
children.
• Firstborn:
– More highly motivated to achieve; perform better
academically
» Higher IQ and SAT scores
– More cooperative; adult-oriented; less aggressive
– Show greater levels of anxiety
– Less self-reliant
• Later-born:
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Learn to act aggressively for attention
Have lower self-concepts
Greater popularity with peer group
More rebellious and liberal
Social Behaviors
• Peer Relationships
– Peer interactions foster social skills
– Provide emotional support
– Physical and cognitive skills also develop in peer
groups.
• At about 2 years:
– Children imitate each other.
– Show preferences for particular playmates
– Early friendships can be fairly stable.
– Base friendships on shared activities and fun
experiences.
Social Behaviors
• Play
– More than just fun:
• Meaningful; voluntary; internally motivated
– Helps develop motor and coordination skills
– Contributes to social development
Social Behaviors
• Play, con’t.
– Play and Cognitive Development
– Piaget’s 4 Types of Play:
• Functional
– Begins in sensorimotor stage and involves repetitive motor
activities
• Symbolic
– “Pretend/imaginative/dramatic” play: emerges toward end
of sensorimotor stage, increasing in early childhood;
children create settings, characters, and scripts
• Constructive
– Use of objects or materials to make something
• Formal Games
– Games with specific rules enhanced or invented by child;
can be “board games” or games involving motor skills;
games involving “teams” or “sides” (people often play these
games throughout a lifetime)
Social Behaviors
• Play, con’t.
– Play and Cognitive Development
– Nonsocial play:
• Play in which children do not interact socially
• Involves educational activities that foster cognitive
development
• Occurs more often in 2-3 year olds than older children
– Social play:
• Children are influenced by other children during play time.
• Becomes common around age 5
• 2 year olds with older siblings or group experiences may
engage more in social play.
• Girls are somewhat more likely to engage in social play
than boys.
– Parten’s Six Types of Play:
• Includes 3 Nonsocial Types and 3 Social Types
• See table on next slide
Table 10.3 – Parten’s Categories of Play
Social Behaviors
• Play, con’t.
– Sex Differences in Play:
• As early as 2 yrs, boys and girls display preference for
same sex playmates.
• Girls and boys differ in choices of toys, environments, and
types of activities.
– Boys:
» Prefer vigorous physical outdoor activities
» Spend more time in play groups of 5 or more engaging
in competitive play
» May avoid girls because they view them as inferior
– Girls:
» More likely to engage in arts, crafts, domestic play
» Spend more time playing with one other child or in a
smaller group
Social Behaviors
• Play, con’t.
– Sex Differences in Play, con’t.
• Explaining early gender-stereotyped preferences
• Biological:
– Boys have greater physical strength and higher activity
levels.
– Girls have greater physical maturity and coordination.
• Adult/Peer Treatment:
– Adults treat boys and girls differently.
– It is expected they will conform to “masculine” and
“feminine” roles.
– If a child “crosses the line” of gender expectation they may
be ridiculed, rejected, or ignored by parents, teachers, and
peers.
– Boys are most likely to be criticized for inappropriate gender
choices in play.
Social Behaviors
• Prosocial Behavior:
– a.k.a. altruism: behavior intended to benefit another
without expectation of reward.
– Includes sharing, cooperating, helping, and comforting
others
– Begins to be seen by preschool and early school years
– Empathy: sensitivity to feelings of others
• Evident by 2nd year
• Non-empathetic youngsters
more likely to behave
aggressively.
• Girls show more signs of
empathy.
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Social Behaviors
• Prosocial Behavior, con’t.
– Perspective Taking: seeing things from someone
else’s point of view
• As perspective taking skills improve with age, children
become more prosocial.
– Influences on Prosocial Behavior
• Even though prosocial behavior occurs without regard for
reward, it is influenced by rewards and punishments.
• Peers respond more positively toward prosocial children.
• Parents of prosocial children are likely to expect mature
behavior and are less likely to use power-assertive
techniques of discipline.
Social Behaviors
• Development of Aggression
– Aggression refers to behavior intended to hurt or injure
another person.
– As with other social behaviors, it follows certain
developmental patterns.
– Younger children tend to resort to aggression more.
– Older preschoolers are more likely to resolve conflicts
by sharing rather than fighting.
– Anger and aggression causes rejection from peers.
– By age 6-7 aggression becomes hostile and personoriented name calling and physical attacks
– Predictive of social and emotional problems later in life,
especially in boys
– But aggressive children of both sexes more likely to
have criminal convictions and be abusive as adults.
Social Behaviors
• Theories of Aggression
– Genetic
• Genes may be involved in aggressive behavior, including
criminal and antisocial behavior.
• Greater concordance (agreement) rates found in MZ twins.
• Male sex hormone testosterone is connected with high selfconfidence and high activity levels including aggressiveness.
– Cognitive
• Children who find aggression a legitimate alternative are more
likely to engage in aggressive behaviors to solve issues.
• Aggressive children lack empathy.
• Less likely to inhibit aggressive impulses
– Social
• Social theories focus of reinforcement and observational
learning.
• If aggressive behavior is rewarded then it tends to continue.
• Aggressive children may also associate with peers who value
and encourage aggression.
Social Behaviors
• Media Influences on Aggression
– Television is a fertile source of aggressive modeling
behaviors.
– Children who watch 2-4 hours of TV a day will see
8,000 murders and another 100,000 violent acts.
– Bandura’s classic experiment (1963) with modeling
violent behavior showed children viewing violence
engaged in more aggressiveness.
Figure 10.1 – Photos from Albert Bandura’s Classic
Experiment in the Imitation of Aggressive Models
© Albert Bandura/Dept. of Psychology, Stanford University
Social Behaviors
• Media Influences on Aggression, con’t.
• How violence on TV contributes to violent behaviors
– Observational Learning:
• TV provides models of aggressive “skills” which children may
imitate.
– Disinhibition:
• Punishment inhibits behavior; if the characters on TV “get
away”with violence then it disinhibits the aggressiveness of the
viewer.
– Increased Arousal:
• Media and video game violence increases viewers’ level of
arousal. Aggressive behavior is more likely under higher arousal.
– Priming of Aggressive Thoughts and Memories:
• Media violence “primes” or arouses aggressive ideas and
memories.
– Habituation:
• People get used to repeated stimuli. The more violence
witnessed, the more acceptable it becomes. We become
desensitized to it.
• Even though exposure to media violence increases the
aggressiveness of behavior, according to Social Cognitive
Theory, it is still a matter of choice whether or not to imitate
the violence seen
LO3 Personality and Emotional
Development
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Personality and Emotional Development
• The Self: (the sense of self & self-concept)
– Categorical Self:
• Refers to concrete external traits
• Children begin to describe themselves in terms of certain
categories: age, sex, etc.
– Self-Concept (self-esteem):
• Children with high self-esteem more likely to be securely
attached, having parents attentive to their needs.
• Also more likely to show prosocial behaviors
• Preschool children make evaluative judgments around 4
yrs. about:
– Cognitive and physical competence (what am I good at)
» But still cannot distinguish between different areas of
competency; just give overall statements
– Social acceptance by peers and parents (who likes me)
Personality and Emotional Development
• Initiative versus Guilt
– Erikson views Early Childhood as the stage of
Initiative versus Guilt
– Children strive to gain independence and master adult
behavior.
– Are curious to try new things and test new skills
– They learn not all plans, hopes, etc. can be fulfilled.
– They begin to internalize adult rules.
– Fear of violating rules may cause guilt and delay efforts
to master new skills; it can be a powerful force in the
child’s life
– Parents can help children by encouraging their attempts
to learn and explore by not being unduly critical and
punitive.
Personality and Emotional Development
• Fears: The Horrors of Early Childhood
– Number of fears peaks between 2.5-4 yrs then tapers
off
– Preschool years marked by decline in fears of loud
noises, falling, sudden movement, strangers
– Now more likely to fear animals, imaginary creatures,
the dark, and personal dangers
– Fantasies and stories can be frightening and persist.
– Many preschoolers want a night light on.
– Real object and situations may also be cause for fear:
storms, heights, being cut by something sharp, blood,
bugs, strange or unfamiliar people
LO4 Development of Gender
Roles and Sex Differences
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Development of Gender Roles
and Sex Differences
• Stereotypes and Gender Roles
– Feminine Traits:
• Dependent; gentle; helpful; warm; emotional; submissive;
home oriented
– Masculine Traits:
• Aggressive; self-confident; independent; competitive;
competent in business, math, and science
– Gender Role Stereotypes Develop in Stages:
• 1st stage at 2-2.5 yrs: learn to label the sexes and can
identify photos of girls and boys
• By 3 yrs: display knowledge of gender stereotypes for
toys, clothing, work, and activities
– Perceptions:
• Children become increasingly more traditional in
stereotyping.
• They perceive their own sex in a better light.
Development of Gender Roles
and Sex Differences
• Theories of the Development of Sex Differences
Evolution and Heredity
Brain Organization
Sex Hormones
Social Cognitive
Cognitive-Developmental
Gender-Schema
Psychological Androgyny
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Development of Gender Roles
and Sex Differences
• Theories of the Development of Sex Differences
– Evolution and Heredity
– According to this theory, sex differences were caused by
natural selection over thousands of generations.
– Genes that increase the chance of survival are more
likely to be transmitted.
– Therefore we all possess the genetic codes that helped
our ancestors survive, including:
• Structural sex differences in the brain and differences in
body chemistry such as hormones
• We see social differences evidenced by mate selection
practices.
– Males emphasize physical attractiveness.
– Females emphasize financial status and reliability.
Development of Gender Roles
and Sex Differences
• Theories of the Development of Sex Differences
– Brain Organization
– Brain organization is largely genetic.
– Use of right and left hemispheres in male and females
may be different.
– In studies with rats and humans, the use of the
hippocampus (brain structure involved in forming
memories and relaying sensory information) is used
differently by males and females.
• Males use the hippocampus in both hemispheres when
navigating.
• Females use the right hemisphere and the right prefrontal
cortex (area of brain that evaluates and plans).
Development of Gender Roles
and Sex Differences
• Theories of the Development of Sex Differences
– Sex Hormones
– Sex hormones and other chemical stoke prenatal
differentiation of sex organs.
– At end of embryonic stage, androgens (male sex
hormones) take part in development of male genital
organs.
– These chemicals may also “masculinize” or “feminize”
the brain, giving rise to behavioral tendencies that are in
some ways consistent with gender-role stereotypes.
Development of Gender Roles
and Sex Differences
• Theories of the Development of Sex Differences
– Social Cognitive
– This theory incorporates the roles of reinforcements
(rewards and punishments) in gender typing.
– Children learn what society considers “masculine” and
“feminine” by observing and imitating same sex models:
parents, other adults, other children, and TV & video
game characters
– Socialization plays a role by providing children with
information about what is expected of them.
• They are rewarded for “gender-appropriate” behaviors and
punished for “inappropriate” behaviors.
• Boys are encourage to be independent.
• Girls are more likely to be restricted.
• Less stereotyping is exhibited by children when role
models engage in non-sex-specific roles.
Development of Gender Roles
and Sex Differences
• Theories of the Development of Sex Differences
– Cognitive-Developmental: (Kohlberg)
– Children form concepts about gender and then fit their
behavior to the concepts.
– These developments occur in stages mixed with general
cognitive development.
– Three concepts of gender typing:
• Gender Identity
– The knowledge that one is male or female
– Usually around age 2 yrs can discriminate anatomic sex
differences
• Gender Stability
– Recognition that people retain their sexes for a lifetime
– Usually around age 4-5
• Gender Constancy
– Recognition that people’s sex does not change even if their
clothing and behavior is inconsistent with stereotypical
expectations
– Usually are age 5-7. But some studies have placed it as
early as 1.5 - 3 yrs.
Development of Gender Roles
and Sex Differences
• Theories of the Development of Sex Differences
– Gender-Schema
– Proposes that children use sex as a way of organizing
their perceptions of the world
– It is a cluster of concepts about male and female
physical and personality traits and behaviors.
© Emmanuel Faure/Getty Images
Development of Gender Roles
and Sex Differences
• Theories of the Development of Sex Differences
– Gender-Schema
– From this viewpoint, gender identity alone inspires
“gender-appropriate” behaviors.
– Once labeled boy or girl, the child tries to live up to
those expectations.
– Both boys’ and girls’ self-esteem depend on how they
measure up to the schema.
– Boys show better memory for “masculine” objects,
activities, and occupations and girls show more for
“feminine.”
Development of Gender Roles
and Sex Differences
• Theories of the Development of Sex Differences
– Psychological Androgyny
– Cultural stereotypes tend to polarize males and females.
– The polarized view assumes that “east is east and west is
west and never the twain shall meet.”
– Emotional boys that show feminine traits are thought of as
less masculine.
– Outspoken, competitive girls as viewed as masculine and
unfeminine.
– But in the Androgyny view both masculine and feminine traits
can be found in both sexes to varying degrees.
– People high in both masculine and feminine traits are termed
psychologically androgynous.
– It is suggested promoting psychological androgyny would be
an asset in meeting life challenges.
– Androgynous children have better social relations and
adjustment and greater creativity and are more willing to
pursue non-stereotypical occupations.