General
Psychology
Scripture
• James 1:19
Wherefore, my beloved brethren, let every
person be swift to hear, slow to speak, slow
to wrath: For your anger does not produce
God’s righteousness.
Memory
 Memory*
 persistence of learning over time
via the storage and retrieval of
information
NAME THE SEVEN DWARFS
ON PAPER
Memory
 To name the seven dwarfs, we must get the
information into our brain (encoding), retain it over
time (storage), and now get it back out (retrieval).
 Forgetting may result from retrieval failure, rather
than encoding or storage failure. IT WAS ON THE TIP
OF MY TONGUE!!
 Sleepy, Dopey, Grumpy, Sneezy, Happy, Doc, and
Bashful.
Memory
Memory is the basis for knowing your friends,
your neighbors, the English language, the
national anthem, and yourself.
If memory was nonexistent, everyone would be
a stranger to you; every language foreign; every
task new; and even you yourself would be a
stranger.
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The Phenomenon of Memory
Memory is any indication that learning has
persisted over time. It is our ability to store and
retrieve information.
6
Studying Memory:
Information Processing Models
Keyboard
(Encoding)
Disk
(Storage)
Sequential Process
Monitor
(Retrieval)
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Information Processing
Frank Wartenberg/ Picture Press/
Corbis
Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works
Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works
The Atkinson-Schiffrin (1968) three-stage model
of memory includes a) sensory memory, b)
short-term memory, and c) long-term memory.
8
Modifications to the Three-Stage
Model
1. Some information skips the first two stages
and enters long-term memory automatically.
2. Since we cannot focus on all the sensory
information received, we select information
that is important to us and actively process it
into our working memory.
9
Working Memory
A newer understanding of short-term memory
that involves conscious, active processing of
incoming auditory and visual-spatial
information, and of information retrieved from
long-term memory
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Encoding: Getting Information In
How We Encode
1. Some information (route to your school) is
automatically processed.
2. However, new or unusual information
(friend’s new cell-phone number) requires
attention and effort.
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Automatic Processing
We process an enormous amount of information
effortlessly, such as the following:
1. Space: While reading a textbook, you
automatically encode the place of a picture
on a page.
2. Time: We unintentionally note the events
that take place in a day.
3. Frequency: You effortlessly keep track of
things that happen to you.
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Effortful Processing
© Bananastock/ Alamy
Spencer Grant/ Photo Edit
Committing novel
information to memory
requires effort just like
learning a concept from
a textbook. Such
processing leads to
durable and accessible
memories.
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Rehearsal
Effortful learning
usually requires
rehearsal or conscious
repetition.
http://www.isbn3-540-21358-9.de
Ebbinghaus studied
rehearsal by using
nonsense syllables:
TUV YOF GEK XOZ
Hermann Ebbinghaus
(1850-1909)
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Rehearsal
The more times the
nonsense syllables were
practiced on Day 1,
the fewer repetitions were
required to remember
them on Day 2.
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Memory Effects
1. Spacing Effect: We retain information
better when we rehearse over time.
2. Serial Position Effect: When your
recall is better for first and last items
on a list, but poor for middle items.
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What We Encode
1. Encoding by meaning
2. Encoding by images
3. Encoding by organization
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Encoding Meaning
Processing the meaning of verbal
information by associating it with what
we already know or imagine. Encoding
meaning (semantic encoding) results in
better recognition later than visual or
acoustic encoding.
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Visual Encoding
Mental pictures (imagery) are a powerful aid to
effortful processing, especially when combined
with semantic encoding.
Both photos: Ho/AP Photo
Showing adverse effects of tanning and smoking
in a picture may be more powerful than simply talking about it.
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Mnemonics
Imagery is at the heart of many memory aids.
Mnemonic techniques use vivid imagery and
organizational devices in aiding memory.
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Organizing Information for
Encoding
Break down complex information into broad
concepts and further subdivide them into
categories and subcategories.
1. Chunking
2. Hierarchies
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Chunking
Organizing items into a familiar, manageable
unit. Try to remember the numbers below.
1-7-7-6-1-4-9-2-1-8-1-2-1-9-4-1
If you are well versed with American history,
chunk the numbers together and see if you
can recall them better. 1776 1492 1812 1941.
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Chunking
Acronyms are another way of chunking
information to remember it.
HOMES = Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior
ROY G. BIV = Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet
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Hierarchy
Complex information broken down into broad
concepts and further subdivided into categories
and subcategories.
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Encoding Summarized in a
Hierarchy
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How good is your memory? I will present
you with a table of 25 different objects
• Write down all the objects that you can
remember.
Storage: Retaining Information
Storage is at the heart of memory. Three
stores of memory are shown below:
Sensory
Memory
Working
Memory
Long-term
Memory
Encoding
Events
Encoding
Retrieval
Retrieval
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Sensory Memory
Sensory
Memory
Working
Memory
Long-term
Memory
Encoding
Events
Encoding
Retrieval
Retrieval
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Sensory Memories
The duration of sensory memory varies for the
different senses.
Iconic
0.5 sec. long
Echoic
3-4 sec. long
Hepatic
< 1 sec. long
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Working Memory
Sensory
Memory
Working
Memory
Long-term
Memory
Encoding
Events
Encoding
Retrieval
Retrieval
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Working Memory
Working memory, the new name for short-term
memory, has a limited capacity (7±2) and a short
duration (20 seconds).
Sir George Hamilton observed that he could accurately remember up
to 7 beans thrown on the floor. If there were more beans, he guessed.
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Capacity
The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus
Two: Some Limits on Our Capacity for
Processing Information (1956).
Ready?
MUTGIKTLRSYP
You should be able to
recall 7±2 letters.
George Miller
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Chunking
The capacity of the working memory may be
increased by “chunking.”
F-B-I-T-W-A-C-I-A-I-B-M
FBI TWA CIA IBM
4 chunks
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Duration
Peterson and Peterson (1959) measured the
duration of working memory by manipulating
rehearsal.
CHJ
MKT
HIJ
547
547
544
541
…
CH??
The duration of the working memory is about 20 sec.
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Working Memory Duration
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Long-Term Memory
Sensory
Memory
Working
Memory
Long-term
Memory
Encoding
Events
Encoding
Retrieval
Retrieval
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Long-Term Memory
Essentially unlimited capacity store.
R.J. Erwin/ Photo Researchers
The Clark’s nutcracker can locate 6,000 caches of
buried pine seeds during winter and spring.
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Memory Feats
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Memory Stores
Feature
Sensory
Memory
Working
Memory
LTM
Encoding
Copy
Phonemic
Semantic
Capacity
Unlimited
7±2 Chunks
Very Large
Duration
0.25 sec.
20 sec.
Years
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Storing Memories in the Brain
1. Loftus and Loftus (1980) reviewed previous
research data showing, through brain
stimulation, that memories were etched into
the brain and found that only a handful of
brain stimulated patients reported
flashbacks.
2. Using rats, Lashley (1950) suggested that
even after removing parts of the brain, the
animals retain partial memory of the maze.
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Déjà Vu
Déjà Vu means “I've experienced this before.”
Cues from the current situation may
unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier
similar experience.
© The New Yorker Collection, 1990. Leo Cullum from
cartoonbank.com. All Rights Reserved
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Test
 Deja Vu (French)--already seen *
 cues from the current situation may
subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier
similar experience
 "I've experienced this before.“
Say each word loudly as I show it to you…
REST
TIRED
AWAKE
DREAM
SNORE
BED
EAT
SLUMBER
SOUND
COMFORT
WAKE
NIGHT