Unit 6: Forensic
Anatomy:
Fingerprints
Fingerprint evidence is one of the most
positive investigative means of identifying
people.
Dactyloscopy
The study of fingerprints
Historically
 William Herschel—required Indians to put their fingerprints
on contracts, and also as a means of identifying prisoners
 Henry Faulds—claimed that fingerprints did not change
over time and that they could be classified for identification
 Alphonse Bertillon—proposed body measurements as a
means of identification; termed anthropometry
 Francis Galton—developed a primary classification scheme
based on loops, arches and whorls.
 Edward Richard Henry—in collaboration with Galton
instituted a numerical classification system
 Juan Vucetich—developed a fingerprint classification based
on Galton’s that is used in Spanish-speaking countries
Chapter 4
Fundamental Principles
of Fingerprints
 A fingerprint is an individual characteristic.
(formed before birth)
 A fingerprint will remain unchanged during an
individual’s lifetime.(different even on identical
twins)
 Fingerprints have general characteristic ridge
patterns that permit them to be systematically
classified.
Chapter 4
Principles of fingerprints
1. fingerprints are unique
2. Fingerprints do not change with age
Fingerprints displace unique patterns
Chapter 4
Al Copone
: tried to hid
his fingerprints
by dissolving his
finger tips in
acid.
Chapter 4
Ridge Characteristics
Minutiae—characteristics of ridge patterns
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







Chapter 4
Ridge ending
Short ridge
Dot or fragment
Bifurcation
Double bifurcation
Trifurcation
Bridge
Island
Enclosure
Spur
Basic structures of fingerprints





Examples of ridge characteristics
used in point-by-point comparisons:
Bifurcation: The point at which one ridge
forks out into two separate ridges
Ridge ending: The point at which a ridge
ends
Short ridge: A small, short ridge which
looks similar to an island
Enclosure: An area completely enclosed
by ridges
Fingerprint Minutiae
Chapter 4
Structure of the skin
Fingerprints Have General Ridge Patterns That Permit Them to
be Systematically Classified: Loops, Whorls & Arches

Left Loop



Loop - one or more ridges
enters one side, curves and
exits same side
Radial Loop - opens towards
the thumb
Ulnar loop - opens towards
the little finger
Right Loop
Loop
 A loop must have one or
more ridges entering and
exiting from the same side.
Loops must have one delta.
 Types
 Radial—opens toward the
thumb
 Ulnar—opens toward the
“pinky” (little finger)
 Which type of loop is this, if it
is on the right hand? Left
hand?
Chapter 4
Whorls




Whorl - forms a revolution around the
center
Plain Whorl - one or more ridges form a
complete revolution around the center;
have two or more deltas
Central Pocket Loop - variation of the
plain whorl; some ridges tend to form a
loop pattern which recurves and surrounds
a whorl in the center
Double Loop (twinned loop) - another
type of whorl; two separate loop
formations surround each other
Whorl
 A plain or central pocket whorl
has at least one ridge that
makes a complete circuit. A
double loop is made of two
loops. An accidental is a
pattern not covered by other
categories. Whorls have at
least two deltas and a core.
 Types

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
Chapter 4
Plain
Central Pocket
Double Loop
Accidental
Arch



Arch - one or more ridges enters
one side, rise to a wave, and exits
the opposite side
Plain Arch - smooth curved wave
in the center; exits smoothly on the
opposite side
Tented Arch - variation of plain
arch in which the ridges at the
center are thrust upward in a more
abrupt manner

Arch
Arches cont.

All fingerprints can be
classified into three
general groups: loops (6065%), whorls (30-35%)
and arches (5%). These
form the basis for all tenfinger classification systems
currently in use.

Tented Arch
Arch
An arch has friction
ridges that enter on one
side of the finger and
cross to the other side
while rising upward in the
middle. They do NOT
have type lines, deltas,
or cores.
Types
 Plain
 Tented
Chapter 4
Primary Classification
The Henry—FBI Classification
Each finger is given a point value based
on whorl patterns
right
Chapter 4
left
Primary Classification
Assign the number of points for each finger that has a
whorl and substitute into the equation:
right
index
right
ring
left
thumb
left
left
middle little + 1
right
thumb
right
middle
right
little
left
index
left
ring
=
+1
That number is your primary classification number
Chapter 4
Comparison
There are no legal
requirements in the
United States on the
number of points.
Generally, criminal
courts will accept 8 to
12 points of similarity.
Chapter 4
Methods of detecting fingerprints:
The method used depends on the type of print and the type
of surface the print is found on
1. Light enhanced: used oblique lighting or a laser to see
hidden prints
2. Powder: black is still the most common
3. Iodine fuming: oldest development used on porous
material ex paper
Chapter 4
4. Ninhydrin: used on porous surfaces, can be used for developing
prints as old as 15yrs. Development is sprayed on and develops
overnight
5. Physical developers: ex silver nitrate, used on surfaces that had
previously been wet
6. Superglue fuming: cyanoacrulate fumes, preserves the print
Chapter 4
Laser Light Without Chemical Treatment
Latent Prints
 Latent fingerprints are those that are not visible to
the naked eye. These prints consist of the natural
secretions of human skin and require development for
them to become visible.
 Most secretions come from three glands:
 Eccrine—largely water with both inorganic
(ammonia, chlorides, metal ions, phosphates) and
organic compounds (amino acids, lactic acids, urea,
sugars). Most important for fingerprints.
 Apocrine—secrete pheromones and other organic
materials.
 Sebaceous—secrete fatty or greasy substances.
Chapter 4
Developing Latent Prints
 Developing a print requires substances that interact
with secretions that cause the print to stand out against
its background. It may be necessary to attempt more
than one technique, done in a particular order so as
not to destroy the print.
 Powders—adhere to both water and fatty deposits. Choose a
color to contrast the background.
 Iodine—fumes react with oils and fats to produce a temporary
yellow brown reaction.
Chapter 4
Developing Latent Prints
 Ninhydrin—reacts with amino acids to produce a purple
color.
 Silver nitrate—reacts with chloride to form silver chloride,
a material which turns gray when exposed to light.
 Cyanoacrylate—“super glue” fumes react with water and
other fingerprint constituents to form a hard, whitish
deposit.
In modern labs and criminal investigations, lasers and
alternative light sources are used to view latent fingerprints.
These were first used by the FBI in 1978. Since lasers can
damage the retina of the eye, special precautions must be
taken.
Chapter 4
First thing to do after visualizing a fingerprint
First photograph the print, then you can lift it
Chapter 4
Iodine Fingerprint
Chapter 4
Ninhydrin Fingerprint
Chapter 4
The Super Glue Method of developing latent
fingerprints
Cyanoacrylate Fingerprints
Other Prints
 Ears—shape, length and width
 Voice—electronic pulses measured on a
spectrograph
 Foot—size of foot and toes; friction ridges on the foot
 Shoes—can be compared and identified by type of
shoe, brand, size, year of purchase, and wear pattern.
Chapter 4
Other Prints
Footprints are
taken at birth as a
means of
identification of
infants.
Chapter 4
Other Prints
Lips—display several
common patterns
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Chapter 4
Short vertical lines
Short horizontal lines
Crosshatching
Branching grooves
A More Recent Crime
A bank robber was startled by an alarm just as the teller
handed her the money. She grabbed it and in her haste to
get away, ran smack dab into a glass door. Nevertheless,
she recovered and got away. Subsequent examination of
the door revealed a red lipstick imprint of the perpetrator’s
mouth. Later police picked up a suspect, but needed
evidence to link her to the robbery.
http://www.hbo.com/autopsy/episode/episode_6_the_telltale_imprint.html
Lip Prints
Lip prints are different and can be used to identify
suspects. There are several general patterns:
Lip Prints
What happened?
Of several suspects, one was
identified by matching his lip print to
that on the bank door.
The lipstick used by the suspect
could also have been compared to
the residue on the door. How?
Chromatography of Lipsticks
Thin layer chromatograph
(TLC) can be used to
separate the components of
a lipstick. The
chromatograms can then
be compared for a match.
Other Prints
Teeth—bite marks
are unique and can
be used to identify
suspects. These
imprints were placed
in gum and could be
matched to crime
scene evidence.
Chapter 4
Visible prints
Print left behind by either leaving the ridge impression or
removing dust in a pattern defined by your print
A fingerprint embedded in soft material is called a plastic
print
Chapter 4
Other Prints
The blood vessel
patterns in the eye
may be unique to
individuals. They are
used today for various
security purposes.
Chapter 4
:
Human Remains
“There is a brief but very informative
biography of an individual contained within the
skeleton, if you know how to read it…”
—Clyde Snow, Forensic Anthropologist
 Forensic anthropologists apply standard scientific techniques developed in
physical anthropology to identify human remains, and to assist in the
detection of crime.
 Forensic anthropologists frequently work in conjunction with forensic
pathologists, odontologists, and homicide investigators to identify a
decedent, the manner of death, and/or the postmortem interval.
 In addition to assisting in locating and recovering suspicious remains,
forensic anthropologists work to suggest the age, sex, ancestry, stature, and
unique features of a decedent from the skeleton.
forensic
anthropologists
 The identification of skeletal, badly decomposed, or otherwise unidentified
human remains is important for both legal and humanitarian reasons.
 Forensic anthropologists frequently work in conjunction with forensic
pathologists, odontologists, and homicide investigators to identify a
decedent, the manner of death, and/or the postmortem interval.
 , forensic anthropologists work to suggest the age, sex, ancestry, stature,
and unique features of a decedent from the skeleton.
The Pathologist
 Determines the time of death. This can be
done most accurately if the body is found
within the first 24 hours of death
 Uses certain indicators such as algor, livor
and rigor mortis.
Rigor Mortis
The rigidity of skeletal muscles after death.
Temperature
of body
Stiffness
of body
Approximate Time
Since Death
•Warm
•Not stiff
•Not dead more than 3 hrs
•Warm
•Stiff
•Dead between 3 and 8 hrs
•Cold
•Stiff
•Dead 8 to 30 hours
•Cold
•Not stiff
•Dead more than 30 hours
Livor Mortis
 Livor mortis is the settling of blood, resulting in a
reddish or purplish color pattern.
 Lividity can indicate the position of the body after
death. When lividity becomes fixed, then the
distribution of the pattern will not change even if
the body’s position is altered.
 Lividity usually becomes fixed between 10 and 15
hours after death.
Algor Mortis
Algor mortis is the cooling rate of the body after death. At a
crime scene, the body temperature is obtained through:
 Rectal temperature
 Liver temperature
Glaister equation:
98.4°F - internal temperature/1.5 = hours elapsed since death
Generally the body cools 1 to 12 degrees Fahrenheit until it
reaches the surrounding temperature
Effects that Influence
Algor Mortis
 Temperature of the surrounding
environment
 Type of clothing on the body
 Wetness of the clothing
 Air movement
 Layers of clothing
 Size of the individual
Forensic Anthropology
The identification of skeletal,
badly decomposed, or otherwise
unidentified human remains is
important for both legal and
humanitarian reasons.
Forensic Anthropology


A forensic anthropologist may provide basic identification
information of skeletonized or badly decomposed
remains.
From a whole bone or part of a bone, the scientist may
be able to determine:
 An age range
 Sex
 Race
 Approximate height
 Cause of death, disease, or anomaly
Osteology
Study of bones
206 bones in an adult human
Function of bones:
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

Provides structure and rigidity
Protects soft tissue and organs
Serves as an attachment for muscles
Produces blood cells
Serves as a storage area for minerals
Can detoxify the body by removing heavy metals and other foreign elements
from the blood
AGE:
Osteologist have developed methods to
determine an individual’s age at the time of death
by the skeletal remains.
Age Determination
Most accurate estimations from:
 Teeth
 Epiphyses or growth plates
 Pubic symphysis
 Cranial sutures: the three major cranial sutures appear as distinct lines in youth and
gradually close from the inside out.
Investigators always use an age range because of the variation in
people and how they age.The investigator does not want to
eliminate any possibilities for identification.
Age Determination
Using Cranial Sutures
Sagittal suture
Sagittal suture completely closed
 Males—26 or older
 Female—29 or older
Sagittal suture is complete open
 Male—less than 32
 Female—less than 35
Complete closure of all three major
sutures
 Male—over 35
 Female—over 50
Lambodial
Coronal
Age Determination
Using Basilar Suture
 Basilar Suture
 Technically known as the
synchondrosis sphenooccipitalis, closes in
females as young as 14 and
in males as young as 16. If
the suture is open, the
individual is generally
considered 18 or younger.
Age
Determination
Using Epiphysis
Stage of Union
of Medial Clavicle
Male
Female
21 or younger
20 or younger
Non-union with separate
epiphysis
16-21
17-20
Partial union
17-30
17-33
21 or older
20 or older
Non-union without
separate epiphysis
Complete union
Age Determination
Using Epiphysis
Stage of Union
of the Iliac Crest
Male
Female
16 or younger
11 or younger
Non-union with separate
epiphysis
13-19
14-15
Partial union
14-23
14-23
17 or older
18 or older
Non-union without
separate epiphysis
Complete union
Cranial development in children ages 0-5
years of age
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
The calvarium is much larger in
relation to the face and mandible
at this stage in life
The teeth are very important
indicators of age in children this
young because developmental
patterns are well known.
Dental development in children ages 0-5
years of age
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
The stage of dental development
seen here is approximately in the
fifth year of life.
The deciduous teeth are
becoming more spaced, the first
and second deciduous molars
are fully erupted, and you can
see the sixth
COMPARISON OF A 5 YEAR AND A
NEONATAL SKULL
AGE DIFFERENCES

Examples of skeletal
development in young adults,
ages 18-23.

Examples of skeletal
development in older adults,
ages 60-70+
Examples of skeletal development in older
adults, ages 60-70+
COLLAPESED VERTEBRA BODY
COMPARISON OF A 5 YEAR OLD SKULL AND THAT OF A 60+
YEAR OLD
SEX:
Another determination that must be made is the sex of
the individual. Often, skeletons are found after there has
been too much deterioration to determine the sex of the
individual.
DETERMINING SEX BASED ON SKULL CHARACTERISTICS
DETERMINING SEX FROM THE FEMUR:
Gender Differences in
Bones
The pelvis of the female is wider. Males have a
narrow subpubic angle (A) and a narrow pubic
body (B).
Male
Female
Sub Pubic Angle
Gender
Differences
The ribcage and shoulders of
males are generally wider and
larger than that of females. In
addition, about one person in
twenty has an extra rib. This
is more common in males
than in females.
Gender
Differences
In males the index finger is sometimes shorter than the third
finger. In females, the first finger is sometimes longer than the
third finger. This is not often used as an indicator of gender as
there are many exceptions.
Is this a male or female hand
according to the above rule?
RACE:

Determining the race of a skeleton can be very difficult.
 It is based on the common characteristics of individual races rather
than on hard fast rules.
 Because race can be a very important factor to identify the individual it
is usually considered.
 Generally, the most important bone for race determination is the skull.
 The following table gives you an idea of the type of criteria used by
scientist.
CHARACTERISTICS FOR DETERMINING RACE
Characteristic
Cranial Form
Mongoloid
American
Indian
Caucasoid
Polynesian
Negroid
broad
medium-broad
medium
highly variable
long
high,globular
medium-low
sloping
front
high,roundeq
medium
highly variable
Nose Form
medium
medium
Nasal Bone
Size
small
med/ large
large
medium
med/small
Incisor Form
shoveled
shoveled
blade
blade
blade
Orbital Form
round
Rhomboid
rhomboid
rhomboid
round
Mandible
robust
robust
medium
robust rocker
form
gracile oblique
angle
moderate
moderate
prominent
moderate
reduced
Soggital
Outline
Chin Projection
narrow
medium
broad
Race
Characteristics
 Caucasoids—have a long, narrow nasal aperture, a
triangular palate, oval orbits, narrow zygomatic arches
and narrow mandibles.
 Negroids—have a wide nasal aperture, a rectangular
palate, square orbits, and more pronounced zygomatic
arches. The long bones are longer, have less curvature
and greater density.
 Mongoloids—have a more rounded nasal aperture, a
parabolic palate, rounded orbits, wide zygomatic arches
and more pointed mandibles.
What differences do you notice
between these three skulls?
Can you determine race?
RACE DETERMINATION

NEGROID:

AMERICAN INDIAN:
CAUCASIAN SKULL
Retention of the metopic suture is generally a caucasoid trait
STATURE:
 Stature
refers to a person’s height.
 By measuring the length, density and width of bones,
osteologist can make a fairly good estimate of an
individual’s stature.
 Often estimations are made with just a single bone.
However, the fewer the bones, the less exact is the
guess.
Estimation of
Height
The height of a person can be calculated by using the length of certain
long bones, including the femur, tibia, humerus, and radius. Below are the
equations to determine average measurements for both male and female.
(All measurements are in centimeters)
Male
Female
femur x 2.23 + 69.08
tibia x 2.39 + 81.68
humerus x 2.97 + 73.57
radius x 3.65 + 80.40
femur x 2.21 +61.41
tibia x 2.53 + 72.57
humerus x 3.14 + 64.97
radius x 3.87 + 73.50
Odontology
The identity of an individual can be
determined by comparing a
person’s teeth to their dental
records. Unusual features including
the number and types of teeth and
fillings, the spacing of the teeth,
and/or special dental work (bridges,
false teeth, root canals) help to
make a positive identification.
Odontology and
Identification
Teeth are often used for body identification
because:
 They are the hardest substances in the body
 They are unique to the individual
 X-rays are a good record of teeth
DISEASES AND ABMORMALITY
ANALYSIS
Further work may be needed to identify the skeletal
remains. Thus osteologist look for more unique qualities
about the bones. This would include bone disease, or
damage
PHOTO 1. SHOWS ARTHRITIS
PHOTO 2 SHOWS PERIDONTAL DISEASE
PHOTO 3 SHOWS DENTURES
PHOTO 4 SHOWS HEALED FRACTURE
SURGICAL RECONSTRUCTION

The surgical
reconstruction of
the face is very
distinctive and
provided a solid
identification
GUNSHOT WOUNDS
Carnivores:

This is a full view of the damaged femur. Notice how the ends
seem to be the preferred part of the bone



Teeth can leave many different
types of markings on bones.
Here are two examples of the
marks that a canine tooth can
leave.
Canines create holes which go
through to the marrow (a), or
impressions like this one (b).
Habitual, strenuous activity


Ball and socket joints present a special risk
because they allow greater mobility thereby
increasing the risk of injury to the soft
tissues and bone.
The head of the humerus and glenoid cavity
shown in this photograph were in complete
contact for many years prior to this
individual's death.
 The surfaces are smooth and shiny,
indicating that the joint capsule and
cartilage had worn away, allowing bone on
bone contact in the cavity.
Skeletal information
 Know
difference between axial and appendicular skeleton
 Know that the hyoid bone is crushed during strangulation
 Know about fontanels
 Know the types of vertebrae ( cervical-7, thoracic -12,
lumbar-5, sacrum, coccyx)
 Know the different types of fractures of bones
Skeletal information
 Difference
between male and female pelvis:
 1 female heavier and rougher bones
 Pubic arch greater than 90 female less 90 male
 Male pelvis narrow and deep
 Cavity of male pelvis smaller than female
Facial Restoration
After determining the sex, age,
and race of an individual, facial
features can be built upon a
skull to assist in identification.
Erasers are used to make tissue
depths at various points on the
skull. Clay is used to build
around these markers and facial
features are molded.
The Body Farm
The nickname of a two and a half acre research facility in
Tennessee developed in 1980 by Bill Bass where bodies are placed
in various conditions and allowed to decompose. Its main purpose
is to observe and understand the processes and timetable of
postmortem decay. Over the years it has helped to improve the
ability to determine "time since death" in murder cases.
Hic locus est ubi mortui viveuntes docent.
This is the place where the dead teach the living.
Facial
Reconstruction
When skeletal remains are found, and the
victim remains unidentified after traditional
means of identification fail, investigators
may call upon the forensic artist to utilize
the three-dimensional facial reconstruction
technique

 Subject, age 4 yrs.
 Mother, age 4 yrs
Subject, age 11 yrs.
Mother, age 11 yrs
Subject, age12 yrs,
sisters ages 14 and 22 yrs
Mother, age 14 yrs
Parents ages 22 yrs
 Subject aged to 22 yrs
Life Photo age 22 yrs
 Death Photo
Computer Sketch
Sketch from Body
Life Photo
Three-dimensional Facial
Reconstruction
Three-dimensional facial
reconstruction technique
The three-dimensional process is initiated by placing the
skull on a workable stand, where the skull can easily be
tilted and turned in all directions
By utilizing proper tissue depth data can be used to
determine race, gender, and age
Artificial eyes are placed in the skull’s eye sockets,
centered and at the proper depth
three-dimensional facial
reconstruction technique
Information such as geographic location of where the deceased
lived, his or her lifestyle, and the various information provided to the
artist by the Forensic Anthropologist and other professionals, is
heavily relied upon when completing the reconstruction.
 Hair is accomplished by means of a wig, or by applying clay to
represent hair.
Various items (props), such as glasses, clothing, hats, etc. may be
applied to better accentuate the features of the individual
three-dimensional facial
reconstruction technique
The tissue markers are glued directly onto the skull.
 Clay will be systematically applied directly on the skull, following
the skull's contours; paying strict attention to the applied tissue
markers
Various measurements are made, and logged, to determine nose
thickness/length, mouth thickness/width, and eye placement
three-dimensional facial
reconstruction technique
Upon completion, the sculpture is photographed.
 All procedures are documented and working notes
collected.
When executed properly, this technique is proven to have a
high success rate.
Unidentified White
Male
 The victim was discovered on February 15, 2002 in Hillsborough County, Florida.
 Estimated Date of Death is 5 or 6 months prior to the discovery of the body.
 Skeletal remains used for reconstruction purposes
Unidentified White
Male
 Estimated age: 55 - 65 years
old
 Approximate Height and
Weight: 5'8"; weight unknown
 Distinguishing
Characteristics: Brown hair.
Evidence of old (healed) facial
trauma near the right eye.
 Dentals: All teeth missing well
prior to death.
 Clothing: Tattered white plastic
pants with elastic waistband,
dark pin-striped men's suit
jacket, and a "Faded Glory"
brand, entirely tattered t-shirt.
Unidentified White
Female
 The victim was discovered
on December 6, 1995 in
Jacksonville, Onslow
County, North Carolina.
 State of remains: Skeletal.
 Estimated Date of Death:
Less than 2 years prior to
discovery.
 The department has not
ruled the death a homicide
because there was little
evidence.
Unidentified White Female
 Vital Statistics
Estimated age: 32 - 38 years old
Approximate Height and Weight: 5'6"
Distinguishing Characteristics: Hair may have been brown.
Dentals: Expensive and extensive dental work. Tooth 19 had a root canal and had been cut for a
crown, the crown was missing. She had protruding teeth.
 Clothing: Around her remains, investigators found two New York Transit Authority tokens, two
keys with a partially burned key tag, a pair of broken glasses and several coins. The clothing
found was a pair of white Nike tennis shoes, size 9; black Lee jeans and a red sweatshirt. Near
the body was a thin 18 k gold necklace, two gold bangle bracelets and two gold hoop earrings.




Instructions for Facial
Reconstruction Lab
After you have completed your facial reconstruction, your
group will need to turn in a report with photograph of face
if possible with the following information:
Identify your missing person
Include case history
Include vital statistics
See next page for example
Unidentified Black Female




The victim was discovered on December 16, 1999 in Tampa, Hillsborough County, Florida.
Estimated Date of Death: Several years +
Skeletal remains
Remains consist of skull/jawbone only
Vital Statistics
Estimated age: 20 - 40 years old
 Other: Voodoo materials located.
Case History
On December 16, 1999 the skeletal remains of a black female was located in a public storage facility in
Tampa. Remains consist of skull/jawbone only. According to The Department of Anthropology at the
University of South Florida, "the mandibular molar displays some enamel crown wear suggesting a diet not
typical of modern Americans, perhaps with more grit than is customarily found today in this country. "
Read Forensics true crime scene investigation pg 71-76
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