APHG Unit Four
Political Organization of
Space
Political Geography

Political Geography is the study of the
political organization of the planet



Since the beginning of history, humans have
divided the planet into political units, or
territories
Territoriality: effort to control pieces of the
Earth’s surface for political and social
reasons
Political Culture: the collection of political
beliefs, values, practices, and institutions
that the government is based on
Characteristics of a State

A politically organized territory

Administered by a sovereign government

Recognized by a significant portion of the
international community. (Ex: Kosovo, the
Southern United States)

A state must also contain:

a permanent resident population

an organized economy
Morphology

Territorial Morphology is a term that
describes the shapes, sizes, and
relative locations of states
Shapes of States
.
Compact – The most
efficient form.
A state whose territory
is nearly circular.
Because all places
could be reached from
the center in a minimal
amount of time making
it the most efficient for
roads, railway lines,
other infrastructure.
Examples: Burundi,
Kenya, Rwanda, and
Uganda
Shape of States


Prorupt - A state that
is nearly compact but
possess one or two
narrow extensions of
territory, which
isolates a portion of
the state.

The proruption can be
a physical
(penninsula)
elongation of land or
may have economic
or strategic
significance – access
to resources, sea,
establishment of a
buffer zone, etc…
Examples:
Democratic Republic
of the Congo
Shape of States

Elongated – A state
whose territory is
long and narrow.
The least efficient
shape
administratively. It
may sacrifice
national cohesion to
promote eco
strength.
Example: Chile,
Italy, and Gambia
Shape of States


Fragmented –
Entirely made up of
islands or territory,
separated by
another state, or is
a state with an
offshore island.
- contains isolated
parts, separate and
discontinuous.
Examples: Indonesia,
United States, former
East and West
Pakistan
Shape of States



Perforated - A state that
completely surrounds a
territory that it does not
rule.
That area is called an
“enclave” and it may be
independent or part of
another state.
An area outside of the
state’s borders that
belongs to the state is
called an “exclave”. (Ex:
Alaska)
Example: Italy or
South Africa
Size of States

Microstates: a country with a land
size of a few square miles


Examples: Vatican City, Monaco
Russia is the largest country in the
world, followed by Canada, China, the
United States, and Brazil
Relative Location of States


Landlocked State: countries lacking
an ocean coastline, and surrounded by
other states
Sometimes a landlocked country will
try to access a foreign port, or become
prorupted

Kazakhstan is the largest landlocked
state
The Nation-State



State: a territorially organized piece of
land, or country
Institution: stable, long-lasting
organizations that help to turn political
ideas into policies
Nation: a group of people that is
bound together by a common political
identity
The Nation-State

A nation-state is a state whose territorial
extent coincides with a group of people, or
nation


Binational/Multinational State: a state with
more than one nation


Examples: Denmark, Iceland, The United States
Ex: The former USSR
Stateless Nation: a group of people without
a country

Ex: Palestine, the Kurds
Organization of States


Core Area: the heartland of an area;
identified by levels of population
concentration and transportation
networks
Multicore State: a state with more
than one core area

Example: Nigeria
The Capital City



In most states, the capital is not only the
center of government, but also the economic
and cultural center
Primate City: the largest city in a nation and
one where the second largest city is
significantly smaller
Forward Capital: the capital city serves as
a model for national objectives

Ex: Japan and Brazil
Colonialism and Imperialism


Colonies: Dependent areas given fixed
and recorded boundaries where none
existed before
Imperialism: empire building
The Berlin Conference: 1884-85




Representatives from 14 countries, mainly from
Europe, met in Berlin to agree on how to divide
Africa.
At the time of the meeting, about 80% of Africa was
still under African control.
They ignored traditional cultural and linguistic
boundaries already present in Africa, and drew their
own borders.
Results:



Hostile groups put together
United groups split apart
Traditional migration routes cut off
By the early
1900’s, only
Liberia and
Ethiopia had
retained their
sovereignty.
The Belgian Congo



Ruled by King
Leopold II, Belgium
controlled a large
region of land in
what is today the
Democratic Republic
of Congo.
Why?
The region was
wealthy in rubber.
The Belgian Congo


Refusal to do so often
resulted in mutilations,
beatings, and death.
It was common for
natives refusing to
work to have their
hands cut off, as a
stern warnings to
others as to what
would happen should
they refuse to work.

“It is blood-curdling to see them (the soldiers)
returning with the hands of the slain, and to
find the hands of young children amongst the
bigger ones evidencing their bravery…The
rubber from this district has cost hundreds of
lives, and the scenes I have witnessed, while
unable to help the oppressed, have been
almost enough to make me wish I were dead.”
 Belgian official
 COLONIALISM
AND ITS
CULTURAL IMPACT ON
AFRICA
AFRICA
Legacies of Imperialism in
Africa
Religion
Language
Other European ideas and technology,
medicine,ethics, etc. were introduced.
Post Colonial Difficulties
Redrawing Africa



Find a partner. If there are an odd
number of student, there may be ONE
group of three.
Grab a World Geography book,
instructions, map, and long white
paper.
Get creative. 
Spatial Organization of States
Turn in “Redrawing Africa”.
Now.
Systems of States



Unitary System: one that concentrates all
policymaking powers in one central
geographic place (European States)
Confederal System: spreads the power
among many sub-units and has a weak
federal government (Switzerland)
Federal System: divides power between
strong central government and sub-units
(US, Canada, Australia)
Boundaries



A state is separated from its neighbor
by boundaries, or invisible lines that
mark the extent of a state’s territory
and the control the leaders have
Historically, frontiers separated states
Frontier: a geographic zone where no
state exercises power

Ex: Antarctica and the Rub al-Khali
Types of Boundaries

Physical Boundary: Rivers, lakes,
and oceans are the most common;
also include mountains and deserts

Law of the Sea: coastal boundaries
extend 12 nautical miles from the coast
Types of Boundaries

Cultural Boundaries: boundary set by
ethnic differences such as language
and religion


Ex: India and Pakistan
Geometric Boundaries: straight,
imaginary lines that generally have a
reason behind them
Functions of Boundaries



Boundaries serve as symbols of
sovereignty, or the ability of the state to
carry out actions or policies within its
borders
Sovereignty promotes nationalism, or a
sense of unity with fellow citizens and loyalty
to the state
Internal Boundaries: boundaries within a
state

Ex: The United States, Canada, China
Boundary Disputes


Almost half of the world’s states have
been involved in boundary disputes
Positional Dispute: occurs when
states argue about where the
boundary actually is

Ex: Argentina and Chile
Boundary Disputes


Territorial Disputes: arise over
ownership of a region, usually around
mutual border
Usually one state claims the other
should belong to them due to ethnic
and language commonalities

Ex: German invasion of Poland
Boundary Disputes

Resource Dispute: dispute involving
natural resources that lie in border
areas


Ex: Iraq and Kuwait
Functional Dispute: arise when
neighboring states cannot agree on
policies that arise in a border area

Ex: US and Mexico border
Electoral Geography

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Electoral Process: the methods used in a
country for selecting its leaders
Electoral Geography: the study of how the
spatial configuration of electoral districts and
voting patterns reflect and influence social
life
Gerrymandering: the attempt to redraw
boundaries to improve chances of winning
election
Minority/Majority Districting: rearranging
districts to allow a minority representative to
be elected

Ex: North Carolina
Supranational Organizations

Cooperating groups of nations that
operate on either a regional or
international level for all major
decisions and rules
Challenges to the Modern
State

Centripetal Forces: bring people
together


Includes Nationalism, Institutions,
Television, and Transportation
Centrifugal Forces: destabilizes the
government and encourages the
country to fall apart

Includes Multinationalism, Religious
Conflicts, and Separatist Movements
Devolution

Devolution is the tendency to
decentralize decision-making to
regional governments
Devolution-Ethnic Forces

Ethnic forces that can cause
devolution usually occur because of
multinationalism; an ethnic group sees
itself as a separate unity from the state

Examples: Canada and Ireland
Devolution-Economic Forces

Economic forces can devolve a state if
the economic activities of the state
vary by region; one region of the state
does better economically than the rest
of the state

Examples: Italy and Spain
Devolution-Spatial Forces

Spatial forces cause devolution if a
part of the state is separated from the
rest of the state due to physical or
other barriers

Examples: East and West Pakistan and
Puerto Rico
World Domination Theories
Geopolitics

The study of the spatial and territorial
dimensions of power relationships
within the political-territorial order
Geopolitics



Friedrich Ratzel (1844-1904): developed
the study of geopolitics; compared the state
to an organism with a predictable rise and
fall of power
Without “nourishment” (expansion), the state
will die
Forgotten theory, until adopted by Nazi
Germany to explain their expansion by force
Geopolitics


Halford Mackinder (1861-1947) was
concerned with the power relationship
around Britain’s empire; believed Britain’s
empire revolved around the sea, but
eventually a land-based power would rule
the world;
Heartland Theory: the “pivot area” of the
world (Eurasia), hold the resources to
dominate the world; 1904

Used by Russia after WW II
Heartland Theory
Whoever rules East Europe commands
the Heartland
Whoever rules the Heartland commands
the World Island
Whoever rules the World Island
commands the World
Geopolitics

Rimland Theory: challenges the
Heartland Theory; says the Eurasian
Rim holds the power to dominate the
world; rim includes land that encircles
the Heartland and includes China,
Korea, Japan, SE Asia, India, the
Arabian Peninsula, and Europe

Developed by Nicholas Spykman
Supranational Organizations
Supranational Organizations

The United Nations (UN)



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191 Member States
Membership is voluntary
UN Peacekeeping Forces
Security Council (US, Britain, France,
China, and Russia)
World Bank and International Court of
Justice

Anyone for Model UN next year?
Supranational Organizations

North American Treaty Organization
(NATO)



28 Member Nations including the US,
Canada, and Turkey
Developed as a political association
The combined spending of NATO on
defense is 70% of the world’s defense
spending
Supranational Organizations

Organization of Petroleum
Exporting Countries (OPEC)



12 Member Countries including
Venezuela, Ecuador, and Nigeria
Purpose is to control the worldwide
supply of oil
Powerful political force as well
Supranational Organizations

North Atlantic Free Trade
Agreement (NAFTA)


Agreement between the United States,
Canada, and Mexico
Trade bloc designed to promote
economic prosperity
Supranational Organizations

European Union (EU)



27 Member States
Economic and Political agreements
Three Pillars of the EU:


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Trade and other economic matters; including a
single currency and European Central Bank
Justice and home affairs; asylum, border
crossing, immigration, and international justice
Common foreign and security policy; joint
positions and actions, common defense policy
Forces of Change



Democratization
Movement toward Market Economies
Revival of Ethnic or Cultural Politics
Democratization

The movement of a country’s government
towards a democracy



First Wave: developed gradually over time
Second Wave: occurred after the Allied
victory in WW II
Third Wave: began in the 1970’s and is
continuing today; characterized by defeat of
dictator or totalitarian rule in South America,
Eastern Europe, and Africa; Samuel
Huntington
Movement Towards Markets

Many countries are moving from socialism
towards capitalism



Command Economy: supply determined by the
state
Market Economy: demand determined by
consumer
Mixed Economy: Government has a say in what
is produced, but competition still exists


Ex: Germany
Privatization: the transfer of state-owned property
to private ownership
Revival of Ethnic of Cultural
Politics



Fragmentation: divisions based on
ethnic or cultural identities
Nationalism: identities based on
nationhood
Politicization of Religion: the
domination of religion in World Politics

Samuel Huntington claims our next
worldwide conflict will be based on
clashes of civilizations