ENG 1520
Richard Xiao
Lancaster University

10/04/2007
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Information structure (IS):
Theoretical backgrounds
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Information-flow principle and principles of end-focus and weight
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Manifestations of IS in sentence structures
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Broadly speaking, information structure encodes which part of a sentence is more informative in relation to a particular context
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Information structure can be said to
“package” linguistic information with the aim of optimizing the information transfer in discourse
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It is primarily concerned with how a message is sent rather than what the message is about, just as the packaging of toothpaste can affect its sales but not much of its contents
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However, while information structure is more about FORM (how information is transferred) than MEANING (information itself) , it plays an essential role in several aspects of meaning
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Essential for
 the construction and coherence of a
 discourse the choice of anaphoric elements
Also necessary for the interpretation of sentences with focus-sensitive particles (e.g.
only, also, too), or adverbs of quantification
(e.g. always, sometimes)
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only
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Some examples showing different focuses of only
The focus in each example is marked in blue, which would receive a pitch accent in speech
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John only introduced Bill to Sue .
John only introduced Bill to Sue.
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John only introduced Bill to Sue .
John only introduced Bill to Sue.
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There are a range of linguistic means that can encode information structure, e.g.
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Intonation and prosody in speech
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Syntactic structures
Word order
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Information structure is “a component of GRAMMAR, more specifically of SENTENCE
GRAMMAR”, i.e. it is “a determining factor in the formal structuring of sentences” (Lambrecht 1994:3)
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Givenness
(what is known vs. what is new)
Given/Old
Presupposition
Background
New
Focus
Focus
Aboutness
(what an utterance is about vs. how it is said)
Topic
Theme
Comment
Rheme
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GIVEN/OLD
BACKGROUND/PRESUPPOSITION
NEW
FOCUS
TOPIC
THEME
COMMENT
RHEME
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Typically consists of two parts
 one less informative part that relates the sentence to the preceding discourse (given, old, presupposed information)
 one more informative part that moves the discourse forward
 by adding new information
 or by modifying the old information given or presupposed in preceding discourse
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Related to the normal ordering of information in English discourse, i.e. moving from given to new information
A question and two possible relies
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Q: When will we come back ?
- A) We’ll come back next week.
- B) Next week we’ll come back .
In the two replies, the given information is marked in blue and new information is underlined
Which reply will you choose? Why?
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A) is better than B)
The given-new order of information can contribute to the cohesion of a text, because the given information at the beginning links the sentence to the previous discourse while the new information is usually taken up in the continuing discourse
The given-new order also helps the addressee to understand
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End-focus principle
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A clause normally has at least one point of focus, which typically falls upon the end of the clause
End-weight principle
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Since new information often needs to be presented more fully than the given information (e.g. by using a longer, more complex, “heavier” structure), the end-weight principle often works hand in hand with the end-focus principle
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A pair of examples
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A) It may take them a little while, but it is important that you contact them to make a housing application and let them know of your
needs.
B) It may take them a little while, but that you contact them to make a housing application and let them know of your needs is important .
Which sentence is more difficult to process? Why?
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Sentence B) is more difficult
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It is structurally unbalanced, and readers have to keep a lot in memory before they reach the end of the sentence
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The end-weight principle states that the end of a clause is the most important point of focus
In addition to final position, the beginning of a clause is another point of focus
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Brilliant that was!
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(=That was absolutely brilliant!)
To this list it would be very desirable to add the status of women and the distribution of income, housing and consumer durables.
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The primary focus falls upon the underlined part in final position
“To this list" in initial position becomes a second focus, which also provides a cohesive link
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Normally agree with each other
When the two are in conflict, the information-flow principle can overrule the end-weight principle
 e.g. That similar relationships occur with these two species under field conditions in
Saskatchewan was suggested by Pickford
(1960, 1966a).
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The that-clause is placed in initial position to serve the information-flow principle by giving old information, even though this is a heavy structure
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Passive
Existential there
Adverbial clause
Clefting
Extraposition
Dislocation
Fronting
Inversion
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One important discourse function of passives is to accommodate information structure by
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Presenting information from given to new
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Maintaining the end-focus and end-weight
Keeping the topic continuous in discourse
Most commonly, the subject contains given information while the agent presents new information, which means that in most passive sentences, the subject has a higher level of givenness than the agent phrase
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About 90% of the agent phrases bring in new information (Biber et al 1999)
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A two-sentence mini discourse
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Almost all entrants to teaching in maintained and special schools in England and Wales complete a recognised course of initial teacher training.
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A) Such courses are offered by university departments of education as well as by many
polytechnics and colleges.
B) University departments of education as well
as many polytechnics and colleges offer such courses .
Which option will you choose? Why?
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Option A) is better
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In accord with information-flow principle
In accord with end-focus/weight principles
Anaphoric use of such in initial position links the sentence more closely to the preceding discourse
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In addition to maintaining information flow, passives can also help to keep the topic continuous so that the discourse is coherent
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A) The town is a major centre for the timber industry and <the town> is surrounded by large industrial and shipping complexes in the river
Dvina, <the town> stretching away to the White
Sea about thirty kilometers to the north.
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Topic of 3 clauses is continuous (the town)
B) The town is a major centre for the timber industry and large industrial and shipping
complexes in the river Dvina surrounded it, < the town > stretching away to the White Sea about thirty kilometers to the north.
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Topic is discontinuous (the town – large industrial and shipping complexes – the town)
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There BE/EXIST + notional subject
Conveying more information than the mere existence of something, e.g. by indicating when or where it exists
As the obligatory elements of an existential sentence conveys little information, it usually has an adverbial or a post-modifier for the notional subject
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There were four witnesses to the ceremony at the city’s Hotel Crillon.
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The notional subject of an existential clause is usually an indefinite noun phrase introducing a new topic which is taken up in the continuing discourse
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There are some apparent contradictions.
For instance, the republics are encouraged to seek membership of the United Nations, although the union is to remain responsible for foreign relations.
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New topic “some apparent contradictions” is introduced by existential there
One example of such contradictions (the republics vs. the union) is given in the continuing discourse
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Existential constructions can help to avoid unbalanced sentence structure
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A) There are many people who believe sincerely that you can train children for life without resorting to punishment.
B) Many people who believe sincerely that you can train children for life without resorting to punishment exist .
Which option do you prefer? Why?
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A) is better than B)
Sentence balance, end-focus
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The placement of adverbial clauses can help to maintain information flow
If an adverbial clause contains given information, it is usually placed in initial position to help with cohesion – in this case, the main clause presents new information
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And if that crisis goes on for years, it’s hard for
them to recollect what they were like before.
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“that crisis” in the conditional clause provides a cohesive link
New information is in end focus
In order to answer this question it is necessary to begin to read the charts as a way of structuring meaning…
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“this question” in the adverbial of purpose provides a cohesive link
New information is in end focus
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Conversely, when the main clause gives old information, the adverbial clause may appear in final position to present new information
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We had them at the hospital <Given>, although I didn’t use them that often
<New>.
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A cleft sentence breaks information in a sentence into two parts in order to provide an extra focus to one piece of information
Two types of clefting
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it-cleft
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wh-cleft
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Nearly all syntactic roles other than the predicate can be brought into focus in it-cleft sentences to achieve cohesion and contrast
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The new freedoms go furthest in NHS Trusts and it is there <primary focus> that we are seeing some of the greatest progress <end focus> .
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"there" provides a backward link to NHS Trusts, and also gives the sentence a primary focus in addition to the end focus
[Canonical word order] …and we are seeing some of the greatest progress there. (less powerful)
Sir, I always thought it was bodies that required the seats, not souls <contrast>.
The focused element “bodies” forms a contrast with
“souls”
[Canonical word order] …bodies, not souls, required the seats. (less powerful)
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In wh-clefts, the focused elements can be a noun phrase, a nominal clause, or an infinitive clause
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What she needed was a solid core of self (noun phrase as focused element)
What he urges is that they should have a better knowledge of the past (nominal clause as focused element)
What you must do is tell Irina to keep him in the clinic till I can come . (infinitive phrase as focused element)
In sentences like these, the part marked up in blue is the primary focus, while the underlined wh-clause forms a second focus
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Inverted wh-clefts and demonstrative whclefts
In both cases, the focused elements usually provide reference to the preceding discourse
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Peace and quiet is what we want.
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“peace and quite” was discussed in earlier text
This is what will determine the outcome of the election.
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Focused demonstrative pronoun this points backwards to the early text
New information in the wh-clause forms the end focus
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Extraposition means moving subject or object clauses outside their normal positions
When this happens, the dummy it is used in subject position of the main clause, anticipating the extraposed clause as the logical subject
Extraposition can help with sentence balance to serve the end-focus principle
Four types of extraposition
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Extraposed that-clause
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Extraposed wh-clause
Extraposed infinitive clause
Extraposed gerund clause
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The dummy it functions as the subject while the
that-clause is moved to the clause final position
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It is obvious that some Conservative Members are living in a dream world. (“it BE adj. that”)
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Canonical: That some Conservative Members are living in a dream world is obvious.
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It seems unlikely that this provisional arrangement will last. (“it SEEM/APPEAR adj. that”)
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Canonical: That this provisional arrangement will last seems unlikely.
It appears that he is afraid of me. (“it SEEM or APPEAR that”)
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Canonical: That he is afraid of me appears (to be the case).
Canonical versions sound less natural, because they go against the principle of end-weight
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The dummy it functions as the subject while the wh-clause is moved to the clause final position
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It is not clear how reliable the measurements of heat flux from sonic devices are in cloud.
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Canonical: How reliable the measurements of heat flux from sonic devices are in cloud is not clear.
For the same reason as for extraposed
that-clauses, the canonical version sounds less natural
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The dummy it functions as the subject while the infinitive clause is moved to the clause final position
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It is essential to read the entire book and then go back to this area.
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Canonical: To read the entire book and then go back to this area is essential.
James found it difficult to accept her explanation.
(object)
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Canonical: ?James found to accept her explanation difficult.
These canonical versions clearly sound less natural than their extraposed counterparts
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When the infinitive clause functions as an object, the canonical version is even less acceptable
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The dummy it functions as the subject while the gerund clause is moved to the clause final position
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It’s very difficult getting supplies into
Sarajevo.
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Canonical: Getting supplies into Sarajevo is very difficult.
They found it fun skiing. (object)
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Canonical: They found skiing fun.
While a lengthy gerund clause can still destroy the balance in canonical word order, a short gerund clause in canonical form sounds as good as the extraposed version
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A construction with a pronoun in the main clause and a definite noun phrase before or after the main clause, which is used to mark the topic or for clarification
Typically found in conversation or fictional dialogue
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Left-dislocation (preface): marking the topic
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One of the guys I work with, he said he bought over $100 in Powerball tickets.
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He -> “one of the guys I work with” [topic]
Underlined part: focus
Right-dislocation (noun phrase tag): for clarification, sometimes also for the endfocus effect of the noun phrase
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Has it got double doors, that shop?
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Noun phrase tag clarifies what the pronoun it refers to; it also brings the noun phrase “that shop” into focus
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Placing in initial position a clause element which normally follows the verb
Used for achieving focus and cohesion as it takes advantage of both final and initial points of focus
The fronted element usually refers to given information, or forms a contrast
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What they can do, we can do.
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Fronted object provides two points of focus and a contrast
Such at least was his observation.
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Fronted element “such” provides a cohesive link and an end-focus
Far more serious were the severe head injuries.
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Fronted predicative relates the sentence to preceding text through a comparison; it also activates two points of focus
Enclosed is a photograph of my late father Bert
Wakefield on site just after the war.
Fronted non-finite construction achieves sentence balance by presenting the structurally heavy new information in final position
[Brave though he is in facing adult audiences], the result is a bit of a cringe.
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Underlined part moved before the subordinator though is clearly intensified; in addition, the end-focus falls upon new information
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Refers to a reversal of the normal word order so that the verb precedes the subject
Helping with cohesion, information flow, intensification and placement of focus
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Next to it <Old> stood the engine which ran it, and the engineer <New> .
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Full (subject-verb) inversion
Underlined part in initial position provides old information
Referential it in initial position increases cohesion
Long subject appears at the end of the sentence
Better than canonical with long subject: “The engine which ran it, and the engineer stood next to it.”
On no occasion did the number of protesters reach more than a few hundred.
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Partial (subject-operator) inversion
Force of the negative element is intensified by its initial focus
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More powerful than canonical: “The number of protesters did not reach more than a few hundred on any occasion.”
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The information structure of a sentence has two parts – one for given information and one for new information, and old information is normally presented before new information
The end and beginning of a clause are usually points of focus, but the structurally complex and informationally
“heavier” part is normally placed in final position
Information structure is manifested in a great variety of sentence structures in
English
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
The micrometer
A micrometer is an instrument which is used for measuring small distances precisely.
It can measure with a precision of 0.01 mm.
A micrometer consists of a steel frame in the shape of a semi-circle.
Attached to one end of this semi-circular frame is a small anvil.
The other end of the frame extends outwards.
A piece of metal in the shape of a cylinder fits on this extension.
The cylindrical part is called the barrel or sleeve.
Inside the barrel is a screw-thread.
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Alonso, I. (2003) Improving text flow in ESL learner
Compositions. The Internet TESL Journal 9/2. URL: http://iteslj.org/Articles/Alonso-ImprovingFlow.html
Biber, D., Conrad, S. and Leech, G. (2002) Longman Student
Grammar of Spoken and Written English. London: Longman.
Biber, D., Johansson, S., Leech, G., Conrad, S. and Finegan, E.
(1999) Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English.
London: Longman.
Birner, B. and Ward, G. (1998) Information Status and
Noncanonical Word Order in English. Amsterdam: Benjamins.
Jennifer A., Losongc, A., Wasow, T. and Ginstrom, R. (2000)
Heaviness vs. Newness: The Effects of Structural Complexity and
Discourse Status on Constituent Ordering. Language 76/1: 28-55.
Lambrecht, K. (1994) Information Structure and Sentence Form.
London: CUP
Nwogu, K. (1995) Structuring scientific discourse. English
Teaching Forum. 33/4: 22-27. URL: http://exchanges.state.gov/forum/vols/vol33/no4/p22.htm
Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S., Leech, G. and Svartvik, J. (1985) A
Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London:
Longman.
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If you have any question, please feel free to ask or email me z.xiao@lancaster.ac.uk
This PPT is available for download at http://www.lancs.ac.uk/postgrad/xiaoz/APR10.zip
Exercises to follow…
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