OBJECTIVE 2:
DEMONSTRATE AN UNDERSTANDING OF
THE ORGANIZATION OF LIVING
SYSTEMS.
Biology of the Individual
The Very Basics, Cells
Know that cells are the basic structures of all
living things and have specialized parts that
perform specific functions, and that viruses are
different from cells and have different
properties and functions.
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Investigate and identify cellular processes including
homeostasis, permeability, energy production,
transportation of molecules, disposal of wastes,
function of cellular parts, and synthesis of new
molecules.
Cell Parts
Schematic of typical animal cell, showing subcellular
components.
 Organelles:
(1) nucleolus (2) nucleus (3) ribosome
(4) vesicle (5) rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
(6) Golgi apparatus (7) Cytoskeleton
(8) smooth ER (9) mitochondria (10) vacuole
(11) cytoplasm (12) lysosome (13) centrioles
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Chromosomes
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A chromosome is an organized structure of DNA and
protein that is found in cells.
It is a single piece of coiled DNA containing many
genes, regulatory elements and other nucleotide
sequences.
Chromosomes also contain DNA-bound proteins,
which serve to package the DNA and control its
functions.
The chromosomes are located in the nucleus.
Humans have 23 pairs.
Gene
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A gene is the basic unit of heredity in a living
organism.
All living things depend on genes.
Genes hold the information to build and maintain an
organism's cells and pass genetic traits to offspring.
Genes are located on the chromosomes.
Organelles
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In cell biology, an organelle is a specialized subunit
within a cell that has a specific function, and is usually
separately enclosed within its own lipid membrane.
A very small organ. It has a specific job to do.
Nucleolus
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The nucleolus is a nonmembrane bound
structure composed of
proteins and nucleic
acids found within the
nucleus.
Nucleus
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the nucleus is sometimes referred to as the "control
center“ of the cell, is a membrane-enclosed organelle
found in eukaryotic cells.
It contains most of the cell's genetic material,
organized as multiple long linear DNA molecules in
complex with a large variety of proteins to form
chromosomes.
It holds the instructions for the cell.
Ribosomes
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Ribosomes are the components of cells that make
proteins from amino acids.
They are located outside the nucleus.
mRNA travels to the ribosomes to meet with tRNA to
make amino acids and then proteins.
Vesicle
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A vesicle is a bubble of liquid within a cell.
More technically, a vesicle is a small, intracellular,
membrane-enclosed sac that stores or transports
substances within a cell.
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
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The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is an eukaryotic
organelle that forms an interconnected network of
tubules, vesicles, and cisternae within cells.
Cisternae may also refer to flattened regions of the
rough endoplasmic reticulum.
ER is like the plumbing.
Golgi Apparatus
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The Golgi apparatus (also called the Golgi bodies,
Golgi complex
The primary function of the Golgi apparatus is to
process and package macromolecules, such as proteins
and lipids, after their synthesis and before they make
their way to their destination; it is particularly
important in the processing of proteins for secretion.
The Golgi apparatus forms a part of the cellular
endomembrane system.
Cytoskeleton
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The cytoskeleton (also CSK) is a cellular "scaffolding"
or "skeleton" contained within the cytoplasm that is
made out of protein.
The cytoskeleton is present in all cells.
It gives the cell form, support, and structure.
Cytoplasm
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The cytoplasm is the part of a cell that is enclosed
within the cell membrane.
Cell Membrane
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The cell membrane (also called the plasma
membrane) is one biological membrane separating
the interior of a cell from the outside environment.
The cell membrane surrounds all cells and it is semipermeable, controlling the movement of substances in
and out of cells.
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
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The smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) has functions
in several metabolic processes, including synthesis of
lipids and steroids, metabolism of carbohydrates,
regulation of calcium concentration, drug
detoxification, attachment of receptors on cell
membrane proteins, and steroid metabolism.
Mitochondria
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A mitochondrion (plural mitochondria) is a membraneenclosed organelle found in most eukaryotic cells.
Mitochondria are sometimes described as "cellular
power plants" because they generate most of the cell's
supply of (ATP) adenosine triphosphate, used as a
source of the chemical energy.
In addition to supplying cellular energy, mitochondria
are involved in a range of other processes, such as
signaling, cellular differentiation, cell death, as well as
the control of the cell cycle and cell growth.
Lysosomes
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Lysosomes are the cells' garbage disposal system.
Lysosomes are spherical organelles that contain enzymes
(acid hydrolases).
They break up food so it is easier to digest.
They are found in animal cells.
Lysosomes digest excess or worn-out organelles, food
particles, and engulfed viruses or bacteria.
Animal Cell
Plant Cell
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Plant cells have the same organelles as animal cells
with the addition of a cell wall and chloroplasts.
Cell walls give structure, connections and support.
Chloroplasts are what make plants green and
produce food for the plant through photosynthesis.
Plant Cell
Chloroplasts
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(only in Plant Cells)
Chloroplasts are organelles found in plant cells and
other eukaryotic organisms that conduct
photosynthesis.
Chloroplasts capture light energy to conserve free
energy in the form of ATP through a complex set of
processes called photosynthesis.
The word chloroplast is derived from the Greek words
chloros, which means green, and plast, which means
form or entity
Cell Wall (only in Plant Cells)
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A cell wall is a tough, usually flexible but sometimes
fairly rigid layer that surrounds some types of cells.
It is located outside the cell membrane and provides
these cells with structural support and protection, and
also acts as a filtering mechanism.
A major function of the cell wall is to act as a pressure
vessel, preventing over-expansion when water enters
the cell.
Animals and protozoa do not have cell walls.
Viruses
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Viruses are not considered living things because they
lack the ability to reproduce on their own.
They must attach to a host cell and use its DNA to
reproduce.
Viruses look like space ships that have spikes and
receptors sticking out.
DNA & RNA
Know the structures and functions of nucleic acids
in the mechanisms of genetics
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Describe components of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA),
and illustrate how information for specifying the traits
of an organism is carried in the DNA.
Explain replication, transcription, and translation using
models of DNA and ribonucleic acid (RNA).
Identify and illustrate how changes in DNA cause
mutations and evaluate the significance of these
changes.
DNA - DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID
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DNA is sometimes called "the blueprint of life"
because it contains the code, or instructions for
building and organism and ensuring that organism
functions correctly.
Just like a builder uses a blueprint to build a house,
DNA is used as the blueprint, or plans, for the entire
organism.
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It is the chemical component of chromosomes, which are
located in the nucleus of every cell. Segments of DNA
(or bands on chromosomes) code for genes.
Gene - a segment of DNA that codes for a protein,
which in turn codes for a trait (skin tone, eye color..etc),
a gene is a segment of DNA.
The structure of DNA was established by James Watson,
Francis Crick & Maurice Wilkins.
Basic Shape of DNA
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The shape of the DNA molecule is a double-helix (like a
twisted ladder).
The sides of the ladder are composed of alternating
sugars (deoxyribose) and phosphates.
The rungs of the ladder are composed of nitrogen base
pairs.
The rungs of the ladder can occur in any order (as long as
the base-pair rule is followed)
For instance, a segment of DNA could be AATGACCAT which would code for a different gene than a segment
that read: GGGCCATAG.
All in all, there are billions of (nitrogen base, phosphate
deoxyribose) groups in cells, which code for all the things
an organism needs to function.
Parts: The rungs of the ladder, the base where you
stand.
Nucleotides (3 part structure:
nitrogen base, phosphate,
deoxyribose)
 Adenine, Thymine, Guanine,
Cytosine or A, T, G, C
 Bases pair in a specific way - called the Base-Pair
Rule
 Adenine pairs to Thymine: T & A
 Guanine pairs to Cytosine: G & C
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DNA
DNA
DNA REPLICATION
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Replication is the process where DNA makes a copy
of itself.
Why does DNA need to copy? Simple: Cells divide
for an organism to grow or reproduce, every new cell
needs a copy of the DNA or instructions to know how
to be a cell.
DNA replicates right before a cell divides.
DNA replication is semi-conservative. That means that
when it makes a copy, one half of the old strand is
always kept in the new strand. This helps reduce the
number of copy errors.
Replication
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The way DNA makes exact copies.
It splits down the bases and makes exact copies of
itself.
Transcription
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When DNA untwists and separates and produces
mRNA
RNA is formed by bonding to DNA
DNA Replication
RNA
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Ribonucleic Acid
DNA remains in the nucleus, but in order for it to get
its instructions translated into proteins, it must send its
message to the ribosomes, where proteins are made.
The chemical used to carry this message is
Messenger RNA
mRNA
RNA is similar to DNA except:
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1. has one strand instead of two strands.
2. has uracil instead of thymine
3. has ribose instead of deoxyribose, a different
sugar
mRNA has the job of taking the message from the
DNA to the nucleus to the ribosomes.
RNA
Types of RNA
Several types of RNA are synthesized in the nucleus of
eukaryotic cells. Of particular interest are:
 messenger RNA (mRNA). This will later be translated
into a polypeptide.
 transfer RNA (tRNA). RNA molecules that carry amino
acids to the growing polypeptide.
 There are some others that you do not need to know
now.
Translation
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Translation - Proteins are made from the message on
the RNA
DNA
mRNA
Transcription
tRNA
Translation
Translation
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The mRNA goes to the ribozones and tRNA makes
amino acids then proteins.
Proteins are Made
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mRNA has the job of taking the message from the
DNA to the nucleus to the ribosomes.
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Gene Transcription: DNA → mRNA
DNA serves as the template for the synthesis of
mRNA.
Messenger RNA (mRNA)
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Messenger RNA comes in a wide range of sizes
reflecting the size of the polypeptide it encodes. Most
cells produce small amounts of thousands of different
mRNA molecules, each to be translated into a peptide
needed by the cell.
Many mRNAs are common to most cells, encoding
"housekeeping" proteins needed by all cells (e.g. the
enzymes of glycolysis).
Other mRNAs are specific for only certain types of
cells. These encode proteins needed for the function of
that particular cell (e.g., the mRNA for hemoglobin in
the precursors of red blood cells).
Transfer RNA (tRNA)
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Each tRNA carries one of the 20 amino acids (thus
most amino acids have more than one tRNA
responsible for them).
Base pairing between tRNA with its amino acid and its
corresponding mRNA brings the correct amino acid
into the growing polypeptide chain which forms a
protein.
Summary
Gene expression occurs in two steps:
 transcription of the information encoded in DNA into
a molecule of RNA.
 translation of the information encoded in the
nucleotides of mRNA into a defined sequence of
amino acids in a protein.
 DNA  mRNA  tRNA  Proteins
Codon Chart
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You must be able to read a codon chart.
Codon Chart
Gene
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A gene is the basic unit of heredity in a living
organism.
All living things depend on genes.
Genes hold the information to build and maintain an
organism's cells and pass genetic traits to offspring.
Genes are located on the chromosomes.
Heterozygous ; Homozygous
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Genes: Units of heredity information that consist of DNA
and are located on chromosomes.
Genes can exist in alternative forms called alleles.
An allele is an alternative form of a gene (one member of
a pair) that is located at a specific position on a specific
chromosome.
Heterozygous refers to having two different alleles for a
single trait.
Homozygous refers to having identical alleles for a single
trait.
Genotype Punnet Square
Pedigree Chart
Classification
Know applications of taxonomy and can identify
its limitations.
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Taxonomy means top classify or put into like groups.
Identify characteristics of kingdoms including
monerans (bacteria), protists, fungi, plants, and
animals.
The classification names are usually in Latin, so you
will see some funny names.
Classification
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Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order
Families
Geneis
Species
King
Phillip
Came
Over
For
Great
Spaghetti
more specific
more alike
Kingdoms
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Archaebacteria
Eubacteria
Protista
Fungi
Plantae
Animalia
Live in harsh environments
Viruses are not included because they cannot
reproduce without a host.
Systems
Know that, at all levels of nature, living systems
are found within other living systems, each with
its own boundary and limits.
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Interpret the functions of systems in organisms
including circulatory, digestive, nervous, endocrine,
reproductive, integumentary, skeletal, respiratory,
muscular, excretory, and immune.
Compare the interrelationships of organ systems to
each other and to the body as a whole.
Body Systems
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The structure of everything:
Atom  Molecules  Cells  Tissues  Organs 
Organ Systems  Organisms  Populations 
Communities  Ecosystems  Biomes
Life starts with the cell and moves upward becoming
more connected and more complicated.
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The Human Body must maintain homeostasis (a
balance). The organs of the body work together in
organ systems to perform specific functions.
Organ systems are connected and work together to
allow the body to function.
Homeostasis: to keep the same.
Integumentary System
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The skin, hair, and nails.
Keeps the insides in and the outsides out.
Protects, prevents infection, and maintains body
temperature by sweating and goose bumps.
Skeletal System
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The structural framework of the body.
Protects the vital organs.
Produces red blood cells.
The muscles are attached to them so they can pull.
Muscular System
Gives the body movement through
contractions.
 Makes the body organs work:
the heart pumps blood through the body;
the lungs breath in and out; the digestive system
moves food in and out.
 Forms simple machines with the bones so the body can
do work through mechanical advantage.
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Nervous System
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The brain, spinal cord, the senses.
It controls the other body systems.
It gathers information and reacts to it.
It maintains homeostasis.
Endocrine System
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The chemical plant of the body.
It produces the hormones and other chemicals that
your body needs
to grow and mature.
Your glands.
It causes puberty.
Reproductive System
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To make babies; To keep the species going.
Female: ovaries: ovum
Male: testis: spermatozoa (sperm)
Sex cells are called gametes, a fertilized egg is
called a zygote.
Circulatory System
To move blood around the body that carries nutrition
(food) and oxygen to the cells and to remove waste
and carbon dioxide from them.
 The blood carries the waste to other systems for
removal and goes to other systems to get more good
stuff.
 Includes: Heart, blood cells
veins, and arteries.
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Respiratory System
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Breathing. In with the oxygen (O2) and out with the
carbon dioxide (CO2).
Gas exchange with bloods help..
Nose and mouth, throat, lungs.
Immune System
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Your body’s defenses.
Fights infection, white blood cells, fever.
Helper T Cells macrophages turn on the
immune response and start attaching
invaders.
The AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency
Syndrome) virus attaches the Helper T
Cells so they cannot fight off infection.
Digestive System
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Eating food, nutrition.
Food in, chew, swallow, into the
stomach, stomach churns and with
acid digests it, into small intestines
where the nutrients are passed to the
red blood cells and taken to other
cells, the waste from the other cells
are deposited into the large intestines
by the red blood cells where it is
mixed with fluids and eliminated.
It’s the food in and out system.
Excretory System
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The body’s liquid waste
removal system.
Red blood cells pass through
the kidneys where the blood
is filtered removing the
waste.
Kidneys  ureter  blatter
 urethra  out  flush.
Body Systems
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You must know how they work together.
How one helps the other.