Interest Groups – Organizing for
Influence
AP U.S. Government and Politics
Interest Groups
• The pluralist theory of American politics claims that
society’s interests are best represented through
group action.
– Group influence has increased over the last few decades.
– This has led to a rise in single-issue politics.
• Interest Group – Any organization that actively
seeks to influence public policy.
– Also called “factions”, “pressure groups”, and “special
interest”
• They concentrate on policies directly affecting their interest.
The Interest-Group System
• U.S. political structure contributes to group action.
– Federalist No. 10 – Madison warns of interest groups
and counts on multiple groups competing for influence
to protect interests of all Americans.
Reasons for so many interest groups:
– Federalism and separation of powers - groups have
many entry points to influence public policy.
– The First Amendment protects and encourages interest
group formation.
– Social Movements – many interest groups were created
in response to demand for change.
• Women’s rights movement, civil rights movement
Why Join Interest Groups?
• Several incentives exist for people to join interest
groups.
– Many people join for friendship and because of shared
interest.
– Others join for material incentives.
• Ex. AARP offers discounts on products and services.
– Some join to accomplish a specific political, economic,
or social purpose.
Types of Interest Groups
• The largest single category of interest groups is
made up of economic groups.
– They are organized for economic reasons and engage in
political activity to seek favorable activity from the
government.
– Business interest groups are the most numerous.
• They represent certain types of businesses or companies.
• Typically lobby for decrease in taxes & government regulation.
– Agricultural interest groups focus on protecting and
expanding farming subsidies in the U.S.
– Labor interest groups promote policies that benefit
workers and unions.
• Although less people are union members today than in the
past, unions still are successful in organizing public employees.
Types of Interest Groups, cont.
– Professional groups represent the interests of
professionals such as lawyers, doctors, architects, and
teachers.
• Citizens (noneconomic) groups also have major
influence.
– Citizens’ groups are drawn together by opportunities to
promote a cause in which they believe, not by economic
benefits.
– Many of these are common cause groups, who seek to
reform the political process to help what they believe is
a worthy goal or purpose.
• Religious groups, ideological groups, social groups
Types of Interest Groups, cont.
– Environmental interest groups have increased rapidly
since the 1970s.
• National Wildlife Federation, Environmental Defense Fund
– Single-issue groups focus their time and effort on one
issue.
• They pressure government on almost every conceivable policy.
• Singular focus sometimes gives these groups an advantage
over groups with a broader focus.
– Ex. National Rifle Association, National Audubon Society, the Sierra
Club
Interest Group Success
• Three primary factors contribute to interest group
success.
– Size and Resources – greater membership will allow the
group to raise more money.
• More money allows the interest group to influence elected
officials.
– Leadership – Strong leadership helps an interest group
negotiate with members of Congress and sell its
message to the public.
– Cohesiveness – Dedication and effort are very important
to an interest group’s success.
• If a group is cohesive in their efforts, it will help them achieve
their goals.
Economic Groups vs. Citizens Groups
• Economic groups outnumber citizens groups.
– They also have considerably more influence.
– Economic groups offer private (individual) goods, which
are benefits that come exclusively to members of the
group.
• ex. Unions allowing access to higher paying jobs
– Citizens groups offer collective (public) goods, which are
available to non-members as well as members.
• ex. A clean environment
• The abundance of collective goods creates the freerider problem.
– Individuals (free riders) can gain incentives without
having to pay any of the group’s costs.
Inside Lobbying
• Groups seek government support through lobbying.
– Lobbying – the process by which interest group
members or lobbyists attempt to influence public policy
through contacts with public officials.
– Two main techniques – inside (direct) lobbying and
outside (indirect) lobbying.
• Inside (direct) lobbying involves direct
communication between organized interests and
policymakers, based on the value of close (“inside”)
contacts with policymakers.
Inside Lobbying Techniques
– Private Meetings between lobbyists and policymakers
where groups pitch their cause.
– Testimony before congressional committees or before
bureaucratic agencies on issues important to the group.
– Lobbyists often assist members of Congress in drafting
legislation and rules for implementation of laws.
– Lobbyists often provide social perks to government
officials including fancy dinners, trips, and parties.
– Lobbyists provide political information including poll
numbers on specific issues.
– Lobbyists also assist by helping find candidates to
nominate for office.
Inside Lobbying Techniques, cont.
– Many interest groups give ratings to members of
Congress on a scale of 1-100 citing how often that
person supports the group’s cause.
– Interest groups will build alliances with other groups
that share similar goals.
• Allows them to pool resources and potential members.
– Interest groups will provide campaign assistance to
politicians who are supportive of the group.
• They can provide volunteers and financial support.
Lobbying in the Three Branches
• Lobbyists can obtain legislative help through
Congress to achieve its goals.
– Members of Congress also benefit from ties to lobbyists.
• Lobbyists will also target members of the
presidential and vice-presidential staffs.
– More of their focus in aimed at top officials of
government agencies.
• Judicial rulings have made interest groups realize
that they can influence policy through the courts.
– As interest groups resort to legal action they often face
one other in court.
Interest Groups in the Policy Process
• Iron triangles and issue networks, in which many
groups are involved, make inside lobbying easier to
understand.
• An iron triangle consists of a small and informal but
relatively stable set of bureaucrats, legislators, and
lobbyists who seek to develop policies beneficial to a
particular interest.
– Together, these groups will determine many of the policies
affecting their interests.
– Groups embedded in iron triangles have an inside track to
well positioned legislators and bureaucrats.
• Because they have something to offer in return, the relationship
becomes “clad in iron.”
• Groups provide lobbying support for agency programs and campaign
contributions to members on Congress.
Issue Networks
• An issue network is an informal grouping of
officials, lobbyists, and policy specialists (“the
network”) who come together temporarily around a
policy or problem (“the issue”).
– Today, issue networks are more frequent than iron
triangles.
– Unlike iron triangles, issue networks are built around
specialized interests and knowledge.
• Participants come from a variety or areas including interest
groups, gov’t agencies, members of Congress and also include
lawyers, consultants, academics, ect.
– Unlike iron triangles, once the issue is dissolved the
network will disband.
Outside (Indirect) Lobbying
• Based on the use of public pressure to influence
officials.
– Interest groups use public relations to create public
sympathy or support for a position by making that
position look favorable. Also known as “climate control”
– Lobbying designed to persuade officials that a group’s
policy position has strong constituent support is known
as grassroots lobbying.
– Interest groups will enlist their constituents as lobbyists
to contact policy makers on their behalf.
– Sometimes they resort to unconventional pressure
through strikes, protests, and boycotts.
• Civil Rights’ Movement
• Sometimes these can turn violent and create backlash against
the group.
Political Action Committees
• A group’s election contributions are funneled
through its political action committee (PAC).
– A PAC is the organization through which an interest
group raises and distributed funds for election purposes.
• By law, the funds must be raised through voluntary
contributions.
– A PAC can back as many candidates as it wants, but it is
limited on how much money it can give to a single
candidate.
• About 60% are associated with businesses.
• They give about 8x as much to incumbents.
Political Action Committees, cont.
• PAC influence has been hotly debated.
– Critics claim that PACs give interest groups too much
influence on Congress.
– Supporters claim they have a right to be heard and
express themselves with money.
• Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission (2010) allows
corporations and spend unlimited amounts on campaigns, as
long at the money isn't coordinated directly with candidates
and parties – led to the creation of SuperPACs.
• PACs give interest groups a level of access to
lawmakers that citizens lack.
– Congress is unlikely to outlaw PACs because they are
unwilling to eliminate a source of campaign funds.
Regulating Lobbyists
• Lobbyists and interest group activity are subject to
federal regulation.
– Lobbyists (those who spend 20% of their time lobbying
Congress) must register with both House and Senate.
– They must file quarterly reports detailing their spending.
– The House has adopted a ban on gifts, while the Senate
adopted a $50 limit on gifts.
– Both houses outlawed all-expense paid trips.
The Group System – Indispensible but Biased
• Pluralist theory holds that organizes groups are a
source of sound governance.
– Pluralists argue that the promotion of special interest
often benefits society as a whole.
– Interest groups can address issues that parties neglect.
• There are flaws in pluralism.
– Interest group liberalism – the tendency of officials to
support demands of self-interested groups.
– Groups get what they want, even if their priorities don’t
match those of society as a whole.
– Interest group membership is skewed toward the upper
class, leading to the wealthy having more influence on
government.
A Madisonian Dilemma
– Madison’s solution to the problem
of factions has become part of the
new problem.
• Checks and balances were designed to
prevent a majority group from
dominating politics.
• Instead, we have many smaller factions
gaining the support of well-placed
policymakers.