Research &
Statistics
Different ways to study the
mind
8 – 10 %
Descriptive and Correlational Methods
describe patterns of behaviors and discover
links between variables
Case studies, naturalistic observation
and surveys.
No manipulation of variables
Naturalistic Observation
Carefully observe and record
the behavior of humans and
animals without intervening
with the subjects
• Observing animals in the
wild
• recording self-seating
patterns in a multiracial
school lunch room
Naturalistic Observation
• observing and recording
behavior in naturally
occurring situations
• without manipulation or
control
• the researcher allows
behavior to occur without
interference or intervention.
Naturalistic Observation:
• When Schaller first started wondering about
the behavior of mountain gorillas, very little
was known about them outside of their
behavior in zoos.
• Schaller arranged to go to Africa to study
gorillas. He soon discovered that gorillas were
hard to find. Slowly, and with much effort, he
began to see signs of their presence.
• He saw where they had eaten and slept a few
nights before; their beds were hours old.
• While sitting in a clearing, a group emerged
around him. From then on, he was able to
watch them closely.
• He gradually discovered a great deal about
gorilla behavior, including the fact they did
not like cameras pointed at them.
• Other investigators followed Schaller’s
pioneering work, including Diane Fossey. Her
story is told in the movie, "Gorillas in the
Mist."
Naturalistic Observation:
• Some examples are television shows
• producers set up unusual situations to see
how people will react.
– a (bogus) mall security guard pretended to
arrest a young man due to an "illegal
haircut" (a mullet) and another man
because of an illegal shirt (with the sleeves
cut off).
• people were observed in their natural
environment (the mall).
• they did not know they were being observed
• differences between the television program
and scientific use of naturalistic observation:
1. the purpose of naturalistic observation is
the acquisition of knowledge, not
entertainment.
2. the show’s producers intentionally
changed the people’s environment to see
how they would react - in naturalistic
observation, the observer just watches
and does not interact with the person
being observed.
Case Study
An in depth investigation of an individual subject
Is language
uniquely
human?
• one type of observational data collection
technique
• one individual is studied in-depth in order to
reveal universal principles
(identify behavioral, emotional, or cognitive
qualities as they compare to others)
• Case studies often include face-to-face
interviews, and paper and pencil tests
Case Study Example
• Jim Springer and Jim Lewis
were twins, separated when
they were four weeks old
• Thomas Bouchard, Jr.
conducted a retrospective
twin study at the University
of Minnesota
• Reunited at age 39
One personality test administered to
the Jim twins found the differences in
their scores to be the same as
differences that would be expected
between the scores of one person
taking two consecutive tests
Both men:
• had first wives named “Linda” and
second wives named “Betty.”
• named their sons “James Allan.”
• drove the same color and model Chevy.
• got headaches at the same time of day.
• enjoyed mechanical drawing and
carpentry.
• excelled at math and struggled with
spelling.
• vacationed in the same spot each year.
• chain smoked Salem cigarettes.
• owned dogs names “Toy.”
• chewed their fingernails.
Clinical Case Study
• A clinical study is a
form of case study in
which the therapist
investigates the
problems associated
with a client.
• Well suited for
investigating
disorders
Advantages of Case
Study
*in-depth, detailed
information about
the case
*opportunity to study
unusual cases
*time, money issues
*ethical
considerations
Disadvantages of
Case Study
*results cannot be
generalized
*prone to inaccurate
reporting from source
*cannot be used to
establish cause-andeffect relationships
*biased researcher?
Survey
A technique for ascertaining the self-reported
attitudes, opinions or behaviors of people
usually done by questioning a representative,
random sample of people.
15
Survey
Wording effect:
Wording can change the results of a survey.
Q: Should cigarette ads and pornography be
allowed on television?
Q: Should cigarette ads and pornography be
forbidden on television?
Does the wording change the outcome?
Survey
False consensus effect:
• A tendency to overestimate the extent to
which others share our beliefs and
behaviors.
We spend most of our time with a biased sample of
people, or those who share our beliefs
Surveys can
be a
problem if
the
questions
are phrased
with bias.
Survey
Random Sampling
If each member of a
population has an equal
chance of inclusion into a
sample, it is called a
random sample (unbiased).
If the survey sample is
biased, its results are not
valid.
The fastest way to know about
the marble color ratio is to
blindly transfer a few into a
smaller jar and count them.
Small representative samples are better than large unrepresentative
samples.
Random Sampling: investigate the
contents of M&M’s
• count how many of each color
• compare to the expected results
we will work on the statistical analysis next
week
Population
 all the cases in a group, from which
samples may be drawn for a study
Random Sample
 a sample that fairly represents a population
because each member has an equal
chance of inclusion
Comparison of different research
methods
Research
Method
Basic Purpose
How Conducted What is
Manipulated
Weaknesses
descriptive
Observe and
record
Case studies,
surveys,
naturalistic
observations
nothing
No control of
variables; single
cases
misleading
correlation
Detect naturally Compute
occurring
statistical
relationships
association
nothing
Does not show
cause and
effect
Experimental
Explore cause
and effect
Manipulate one The
or more factors; independent
use random
variable
assignment
Not always
feasible; not
always ethical;
may not
generalize to
other contexts
22
• For the next three slides, decide
whether a case study, survey, or
naturalistic observation would be the
best method of observation for the
following situations:
Situation #1
• There have been reported cases of boys
between the ages of 4 and 10 pushing girls
down on a local playground. Some of the boys
have been identified and punished, but the
problem has only grown worse. It is getting to
the point that girls are beginning to avoid the
park. As a local developmental psychologist,
you have been asked to figure out why this
situation is occurring and what could possibly
be done to stop it from happening.
Situation #2
• You are conducting research on the increasing
numbers of canine obesity in the United
States. Your theory is that dogs are more
obese, in most cases, because they are fed
table scraps. You would like to find out
roughly how many people feed their dogs
people food.
Situation #3
• As a college student in the field of psychology,
you are required to complete an experimental
observation. You find abstract art as
interesting as you find psychology, so you
decide to try to explore the mind of an
abstract artist from all of the seven
perspectives. You then want to compare your
results to that of people who are not abstract
artists and look for notable differences.
3) Correlational Methods
• Survey
Correlational Study
• Longitudinal Study
•Seeing the relationship
between two variables
(i.e. smoking and lung
cancer)
• Cross-Sectional
Study
*CANNOT conclude that the
relationship is a CAUSE.
• Naturalistic
Observation
• Cohort-Sequential
Study
The researcher must take great care to make
sure the questions are not skewed or
biased
Two Types of Bias
Personal Bias
– allowing personal beliefs to affect the
outcome of a study.
Expectancy Bias
– allowing his or her expectations to affect the
outcome of a study.
Illusory Correlation
The perception of a relationship
where no relationship actually
exists.
 Explains many superstitious
beliefs.
Example: Parents conceive
children after adoption.
Evaluating Therapies
Double-blind Procedure
In evaluating drug therapies, patients and
experimenter’s assistants should remain
unaware of which patients had the real
treatment and which patients had the placebo
treatment.
Placebo Effect: when the belief that a person is
getting treatment relieves symptoms.
Correlational Methods
Longitudinal Study
*one group of subjects
is followed and
observed for an
extended period of
time, such as 20
years.
Drawbacks
include: time
and money
Correlational Methods
Cohort-Sequential
Study
*cross-section of the
population and then
follow each cohort or
group for a short
period of time.
*takes less time
*less susceptible
to bias
*yields more
accurate data
Types of Research
3)Correlational Methods
Cross-Sectional Study
*examines a
representative cross
section of the
population and
tests/surveys these
subjects at one
specific time.
Yields data
similar to
longitudinal
study but not as
accurate.
Research Data
Double-blind Procedure
*both the subject and the research staff are
ignorant (blind) about whether the subject
has received the treatment or a placebo
*commonly used in drug-evaluation studies
Placebo
*an inert substance or condition that may be
administered instead of a presumed active
agent, such as a drug, to see if it triggers the
effects believed to characterize the active
agent
Advantages of Correlation
Study
*examine, test, reveal,
compare or describe
relationship between 2
variables
*efficient, collect lots of
data
*make predictions
Disadvantages of
Correlation Study
*cannot establish causeand-effect
*prone to inaccurate
reporting
*hard to access the
impact of additional
variables
*do not allow for the
*dispel illusory correlations
active manipulation of
variables.
*utilize preexisting or
archival data
featured study
• Page 46 - 47
2) Non
Experimental Method
Ex Post Facto
•
Subjects chosen on the basis of a
preexisting condition. (i.e.) studying
effects of cancer or alcoholism.