METODE LCA:
LIFE CYCLE
ANALYSIS
dalam
KAJIAN LINGKUNGAN
Diabstraksikan oleh: Nunuk L.H., N. Akhmad, E. Sunaryono, dan Soemarno
PSDL-PDKL-PPSUB Januari 2013
HASILHASIL
PENELITIAN
LIFE-CYCLE ANALYSIS: USES AND PITFALLS
Linda Gaines and Frank Stodolsky
Conference Paper : Air & Waste Management Association 90th Annual Meeting &
Exhibition. Date: June 8-13, 1997. Toronto, Ontario, Canada
There has been a recent trend toward the use of lifecycle analysis (LCA)
as a decision-making tool. However, the different practitioners' methods
and assumptions vary widely, as do the interpretations put on the results.
The lack of uniformity has been addressed by such groups as the Society
of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC) and the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO), but standardization of
methodology assures neither meaningful results nor appropriate use of
the results. This paper examines the types of analysis that are possible
for various consumer products, explains possible pitfalls to be avoided,
and suggests ways that LCA can be used as part of a rational decisionmaking procedure. Examples are drawn from studies of municipal waste
disposition, using standard methodology.
The key to performing a useful analysis is identification of the factors that
will actually be used in making the decision. It makes no sense to analyze
system energy use in detail if direct financial cost is to be the decision
criterion. Criteria may depend on who is making the decision (consumer,
producer, regulator). LCA can be used to track system performance for a
variety of criteria, including emissions, energy use, and monetary costs,
and these can have spatial and temporal distributions. Real decisions are
often made using rather narrow criteria; we illustrate how choice of criteria
and differences in location can affect decisions. Because optimization of
one parameter is likely to worsen another, identification of trade-offs is an
important function of LCA.
Diunduh dari:
www.transportation.anl.gov/pdfs/TA/104.pdf……. 5/1/2013
LIFE-CYCLE ANALYSIS: USES AND PITFALLS
Linda Gaines and Frank Stodolsky
Conference Paper : Air & Waste Management Association 90th Annual Meeting &
Exhibition. Date: June 8-13, 1997. Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Lifecycle analysis (LCA) is a powerful tool, often used as an aid to
decision making in industry and for public policy. LCA forms the
foundation of the newly-invented field of industrial ecology.
There are several possible uses and users for this tool. It can be used to
evaluate the impacts from a process or from production and use of a
product. Impacts from competing products or processes can be compared
to help manufacturers or consumers choose among options, including
foregoing the service the product or process would have provided
because the impacts are too great.
Information about impacts can be used by governments to set regulations,
taxes, or tariffs; to allocate funds for research and development (R&D) or
low-interest loans; or to identify projects worthy to receive tax credits. In
addition, LCA can identify key process steps and, most important, key
areas where process changes, perhaps enabled by R&D, could
significantly reduce impacts.
Analysts can use the results to help characterize the ramifications of
possible policy options or technological changes.
Diunduh dari:
www.transportation.anl.gov/pdfs/TA/104.pdf ……. 5/1/2013
LIFE-CYCLE ANALYSIS: USES AND PITFALLS
Linda Gaines and Frank Stodolsky
Conference Paper : Air & Waste Management Association 90th Annual Meeting &
Exhibition. Date: June 8-13, 1997. Toronto, Ontario, Canada
The basic procedure is, in concept, relatively straightforward. Examine the
entire system, evaluate the impacts, and choose the best option. But in
actual practice, there are a number of difficulties. Each of the key words
used in describing the procedure needs careful definition, or the results
obtained may be different.
The system must be defined so that the entire lifecycle is included, or
important effects may be neglected. Alternatively, smaller systems with
equivalent inputs and outputs can be compared.
The impacts of concern must be identified, and these can range from a
single air emission (e.g., CO2) to total financial costs. Impacts may be
difficult to evaluate, and they may be regional or global, as well as
distributed in time.
The analyst or decision-maker must finally decide what is meant by "best."
If there are trade-offs among impacts, how should they be weighted?
Different weightings might imply different decisions.
Diunduh dari:
www.transportation.anl.gov/pdfs/TA/104.pdf ……. 5/1/2013
LIFE-CYCLE ANALYSIS: USES AND PITFALLS
Linda Gaines and Frank Stodolsky
Conference Paper : Air & Waste
Management
Association 90th Annual Meeting &
LCA
CONCEPTS
Exhibition. Date: June 8-13, 1997. Toronto, Ontario, Canada
This section briefly describes our concept of LCA. LCA is an effective tool
when a decision must be made about how to deal with a specific, limited
problem. (For some purposes, larger problems can be tackled, but these
and the associated institutional issues are very complicated.). The logical
steps in the LCA procedure are described below.
System Definition -- The first step in a complete LCA is to determine what
consumers actually require. They do not usually require a specific product
made from a specific material, but rather a service that will meet their
primary needs (such as freshness of the contents of a package).
Once the actual requirements are identified, the next step is to define all
of the acceptable means to satisfy them (such as using a different
process to produce the product or recycling it). All of the inputs and
outputs associated with each option must be identified; care must be
taken to ensure that systems to be compared have equivalent
functionality. For instance, if one produces a co-product, appropriate
credits must be given.
Life-Cycle Inventory -- The next step in the analysis is to actually perform
an inventory of all of the inputs and outputs for every element of the
system and for each process or product option. Two alternative methods
can be used: input/output (I/O) analysis and process analysis. Each has
advantages and disadvantages, but we prefer to use process analysis
because newer data are generally available and the effects of
technological changes are more apparent. On the other hand, I/O
captures all the effects from a process throughout the entire economy.
The collection and interpretation of data for process analysis are nontrivial
activities and the subject of a considerable volume of literature. We
employed flowcharts to aid in our understanding of energy and material
flows in industrial processes (inputs and outputs, including residuals). An
example is provided in Figure 1.
Diunduh dari:
www.transportation.anl.gov/pdfs/TA/104.pdf ……. 5/1/2013
LIFE-CYCLE ANALYSIS: USES AND PITFALLS
Linda Gaines and Frank Stodolsky
Conference Paper : Air & Waste Management Association 90th Annual Meeting &
Exhibition. Date: June 8-13, 1997. Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Criteria Choice -- The analyst must then determine the goals to be
accomplished (i.e., define the criteria to be used for choosing the best
option). The choice of criteria is a policy decision; the criteria should be
meaningful and explicit, rather than vague "motherhood and apple pie“
justifications like conserving resources.
Which resources do we want to conserve?
Possibilities include energy in general, fossil fuels, trees, landfill space,
and clean air. Other possible goals include minimizing costs, either for
production or over the product's life cycle. But any decision (including
changes in lifestyle that would reduce or eliminate the demand) involves
trade-offs. It is often difficult to conserve one resource without using more
of another. So priorities must be more detailed, and may differ, depending
on who is setting the policy and where the decision is being made.
Minimizing the total cost to society might be considered the ultimate
criterion for a product or process choice. We attempted to analyze total
costs in an early work on power generation options.(1)
The total social cost includes the direct financial cost and indirect costs.
Indirect costs, which differ for virgin and recycled products, are generally
not reflected in the market price of the products. Indirect costs can result
from impacts on unpriced resources (such externalities as air and water
quality, wilderness, parks, and wildlife habitats), as well as costs to other
parties (such as damage to buildings from acid rain).
External costs are sometimes internalized by the government through
regulations, such as limits on SO2 emissions from utilities and industrial
boilers. Other social costs that may not be adequately reflected in the
market price are the time-related or strategic values of resources.
Diunduh dari:
www.transportation.anl.gov/pdfs/TA/104.pdf ……. 5/1/2013
LIFE-CYCLE ANALYSIS: USES AND PITFALLS
Linda Gaines and Frank Stodolsky
Conference Paper : Air & Waste Management Association 90th Annual Meeting &
Exhibition. Date: June 8-13, 1997. Toronto, Ontario, Canada
The LCA examples presented below is study of alternative
disposition option for municipal solid waste (msw).
Recycling of Solid Waste -- The second example is more insidious,
because this generally competent and objective study for a public interest
group does not technically make any errors.
However, there is a flaw (or is it a feature?) in the data presentation that
supports a policy option that appears inconsistent with the presumed
decision criteria. The study includes detailed appendices with careful
estimates, using the SETAC methodology, of lifecycle inventories of
energy and emissions for manufacture and recycling of each of the major
components in municipal solid waste. Again, the material of interest is
kraft paper, and the text includes the key fact that recycling of kraft paper
may actually require more fossil fuel than does production from trees. The
conclusion based on this fact was highlighted in our work on MSW (4): if
fossil fuel use (and CO2 emissions) is to be minimized, perhaps kraft
paper should be burned for energy rather than recycled, in order to
conserve fossil fuel. No such conclusion is made in the example report,
however. Instead, total energy use for all of the components in MSW is
added up. The aggregation obscures important differences among
materials.
The total energy use when MSW is recycled is correctly found to be lower than when
all of the material is landfilled. Therefore, maximum recycling is the option suggested
in both the main report text and in the executive summary, where only aggregated
results are presented.
Moreover, the report implies that a major opportunity for increased recycling is
increased paper recovery. The important information about paper recycling remains
buried in the appendix. The more appropriate MSW strategy to conserve fossil fuel
and minimize emissions, a mixed strategy including combustion of some
components, should have been highlighted.
Diunduh dari:
www.transportation.anl.gov/pdfs/TA/104.pdf……. 5/1/2013
LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT AND THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF
BUILDINGS: A REVIEW
Mohamad Monkiz Khasreen , Phillip F.G. Banfill and Gillian F. Menzies
Sustainability 2009, 1, 674-701
Life-Cycle Assessment (LCA) is one of various management tools for
evaluating environmental concerns. This paper reviews LCA from a
buildings perspective.
It highlights the need for its use within the building sector, and the
importance of LCA as a decision making support tool. It discusses LCA
methodologies and applications within the building sector, reviewing some
of the life-cycle studies applied to buildings or building materials and
component combinations within the last fifteen years in Europe and the
United States.
It highlights the problems of a lack of an internationally comparable and
agreed data inventory and assessment methodology which hinder the
application of LCA within the building industry.
It identifies key areas for future research as
1. The whole process of construction,
2. The relative weighting of different environmental impacts and
3. Applications in developing countries.
Diunduh dari:
……. 5/1/2013
LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT AND THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF
BUILDINGS: A REVIEW
Mohamad Monkiz Khasreen , Phillip F.G. Banfill and Gillian F. Menzies
Sustainability 2009, 1, 674-701
Life-Cycle Assessment
There are many methods available for assessing the environmental
impacts of materials and components within the building sector. While
adequate to an extent for a particular purpose, they have disadvantages.
LCA is a methodology for evaluating the environmental loads of processes
and products during their whole life-cycle [15]. The assessment includes
the entire life-cycle of a product, process, or system encompassing the
extraction and processing of raw materials; manufacturing, transportation
and distribution; use, reuse, maintenance, recycling and final disposal
[16]. LCA has become a widely used methodology, because of its
integrated way of treating the framework, impact assessment and data
quality [17]. LCA methodology is based on ISO 14040 and consists of four
distinct analytical steps: defining the goal and scope, creating the lifecycle inventory, assessing the impact and finally interpreting the results
[18]. Employed to its full, LCA examines environmental inputs and outputs
related to a product or service life-cycle from cradle to grave, i.e., from
raw material extraction, through manufacture, usage phase, reprocessing
where needed, to final disposal.
Diunduh dari: www.rpd-mohesr.com/uploads/custompages/sust..pdf ……. 5/1/2013
LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT AND THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF
BUILDINGS: A REVIEW
Mohamad Monkiz Khasreen , Phillip F.G. Banfill and Gillian F. Menzies
Sustainability 2009, 1, 674-701
ISO 14040 defines LCA as: ―A technique for assessing the
environmental aspects and potential impacts associated with a
product, by: compiling an inventory of relevant inputs and outputs
of a product system; evaluating the potential environmental
impacts; and interpreting the results of the inventory analysis and
impact assessment phases.
LCA is often employed as an analytical decision support tool.
Historically it has found popular use comparing established ways
of making and processing materials, for example comparing
recycling with incineration as a waste management option .
LCA is increasingly being seen as a tool for the delivery of more
eco-efficient life-cycles.
Diunduh dari: www.rpd-mohesr.com/uploads/custompages/sust..pdf ……. 5/1/2013
LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT AND THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF
BUILDINGS: A REVIEW
Mohamad Monkiz Khasreen , Phillip F.G. Banfill and Gillian F. Menzies
Sustainability 2009, 1, 674-701
The UN Environment Program published the Life-cycle
Assessment: What Is and How to Do it, and The European
Environment Agency‘s Life-cycle Assessment: A Guide to
Approaches, Experiences and Information Sources .
There were many initiatives to standardize the methodology of
life-cycle assessment; the Canadian Standards Association
released the world‘s first national LCA guideline Z-760
Environmental Life-cycle Assessment in 1994, to provide in-depth
information on LCA methodology .
The most recognized standards were the ones published by the
International Standards Organization ISO :
1. ISO 14040 Environmental management, LCA, Principles and
framework (1997).
2. ISO 14041 Environmental management, LCA, Goal definition
and inventory analysis (1998).
3. ISO 14042 Environmental management, LCA, Life-cycle
impact assessment (2000).
4. ISO 14043 Environmental management, LCA, Life-cycle
interpretation (2000).
Diunduh dari: www.rpd-mohesr.com/uploads/custompages/sust..pdf ……. 5/1/2013
LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT AND THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF
BUILDINGS: A REVIEW
Mohamad Monkiz Khasreen , Phillip F.G. Banfill and Gillian F. Menzies
Sustainability 2009, 1, 674-701
The building industry, governments, designers and researchers of
buildings are all affected by the trend of sustainable production and ecogreen strategies. The importance of obtaining environment-related
product information by LCA is broadly recognized, and LCA is one of the
tools to help achieve sustainable building practices.
Applying LCA in the building sector has become a distinct working area
within LCA practice. This is not only due to the complexity of buildings but
also because of the following factors, which combine to make this sector
unique in comparison to other complex products.
1. First, buildings have long lifetimes, often more than 50 years, and it is
difficult to predict the whole life-cycle from cradle-to-grave.
2. Second, during its life span, the building may undergo many changes
in its form and function, which can be as significant, or even more
significant, than the original product. The ease with which changes
can be made and the opportunity to minimize the environmental
effects of changes are partly functions of the original design.
3. Third, many of the environmental impacts of a building occur during its
use. Proper design and material selection are critical to minimize
those in-use environmental loads.
4. Fourth, there are many stakeholders in the building industry. The
designer, who makes the decisions about the final building or its
required performance, does not produce the components, nor does he
or she build the building. Traditionally, each building is unique and is
designed as such. There is very little standardization in whole building
design, so new choices have to be made for each specific situation.
Diunduh dari: www.rpd-mohesr.com/uploads/custompages/sust..pdf ……. 5/1/2013
LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT AND THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF
BUILDINGS: A REVIEW
Mohamad Monkiz Khasreen , Phillip F.G. Banfill and Gillian F. Menzies
Sustainability 2009, 1, 674-701
Life-Cycle Assessment Methods in Building
ISO 14040 defined four main phases of life-cycle assessment
study, each affecting the other phases
in some way (Figure 1).
Figure 1. Life-cycle assessment framework [18].
Goal and scope
definition
Interpretation
Inventory Analysis
Impact Assessment
Study
Outcome
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Energy and Buildings 36 (2004) 1021–1027
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT AND LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT OF
HEATING AND AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS, A SIMPLIfiED CASE
STUDY
Matjaz Prek∗
During the design process of heating and air conditioning systems, the
designer must analyse various factors in order to determine the
best design options. Therefore, the environmental aspects of a product
should be included in the analysis and selection of design options
if an environmentally aware design is to be produced or selected.
The comparison between three different heating systems was made with
the Eco-indicator 95 method.
The study included the environmental impact at the production phase of
the system, because alternative production methods have different kinds
of environmental burdens.
The results showed that the three different concepts of heating systems
with different construction materials varied the Eco-indicator value. For
radiator heating system the Eco-indicator value is far superlative than for
floor or fan coil convector heating system. Copper pipes and other copper
parts contribute to the greatest environmental impact.
Radiator heating Eco-indicator showed three times higher value for
copper pipes than for the steel pipes despite smaller dimensions.
The lowest values are obtained for floor heating systems. Reasonable
values are obtained for fan coil units; analysis shows up, that heat
exchanger contributes the main part of the value.
Diunduh dari:
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Energy and Buildings 36 (2004) 1021–1027
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT AND LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT OF
HEATING AND AIR
CONDITIONING SYSTEMS, A SIMPLIfiED CASE STUDY
Matjaz Prek∗
A major goal of these studies is to present the consequences of
designers’ choices during the design phase.
Selecting and designing of heating and air-conditioning systems affects
the costs and the environmental impacts.
This study dealt with effects of selecting the heating system as a part of
building services systems of a dwelling in a residential building. The work
was carried out by studying alternative combinations of heating systems
in model building.
In the study the LCA methodology was used. It has become one of the
most actively considered techniques for the study and analysis of
strategies to meet environmental challenges.
The strengths of LCAs derive from their roots in traditional engineering
and process analysis. Also vital is the technique’s recognition that the
consequences of changes in technological undertakings may extend far
beyond the immediate, or local, environment.
A technological process or a change in process can produce a range of
consequences whose impacts can only be perceived when the entire
range is taken into consideration.
Diunduh dari:
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Energy and Buildings 36 (2004) 1021–1027
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT AND LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT OF
HEATING AND AIR
CONDITIONING SYSTEMS, A SIMPLIfiED CASE STUDY
Matjaz Prek∗
Life cycle assessment and Eco-indicator methodology
Life cycle assessment is defined by ISO 14000 series standards [5–8] and
is conducted by compiling an inventory of relevant inputs and outputs of a
product system by evaluating the potential environmental impacts
associated with the inputs and outputs and by interpreting the results of
the inventory analysis and impact assessment phases.
The LCA covers the whole life of the product; the study begins from the
raw material acquisition through production, use and disposal.
The main phases of LCA are goal and scope definition (defining aims,
product system and reach of the study), inventory (extractions and
emissions caused by the product system are quantified and related to the
product function), impact assessment (outcome of the inventory is
analysed with respect to their environmental relevance) and interpretation
(results are evaluated with regard to the goal of the study).
Diunduh dari:
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Energy and Buildings 36 (2004) 1021–1027
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT AND LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT OF
HEATING AND AIR
CONDITIONING SYSTEMS, A SIMPLIfiED CASE STUDY
Matjaz Prek∗
An LCA starts with a systematic inventory of all emissions and the
resource consumption during a product’s entire life cycle. The
result of this inventory is a list of emissions, consumed resources
and non-material impacts like land use.
This table is termed the inventory result. Since usually inventory
tables are very long and hard to interpret, it is common practice to
sort the impacts by the impact category and calculate a score for
impact categories such as greenhouse effect, ozone layer
depletion, and acidification.
Once the category indicator results are generated, additional
techniques are used to analyse the category indicator results
(normalisation) and the valuation process to aggregate across
impact categories (valuation or weighting).
How these impact categories are to be weighted is much less
clear. For this reasons it is frequently the case that the result of an
LCA cannot be unambiguously interpreted.
Diunduh dari:
……. 5/1/2013
Energy and Buildings 36 (2004) 1021–1027
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT AND LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT OF
HEATING AND AIR
CONDITIONING SYSTEMS, A SIMPLIfiED CASE STUDY
Matjaz Prek∗
The importance of the LCA approach, including the LCIA phase,
lies in LCA’s key feature—a system-wide perspective and the use
of inventory functional unit to normalize the data.
Weighting is an optional element to be included separately to
better understand the ecological consequences of results from
the inventory analysis. This procedure, starting with the inventory
result and then trying to interpret it, is referred to as the bottom-up
approach.
Another possibility is a top-down approach. The top-down
approach starts by defining the required result of assessment.
This involves the definition of term ‘environment’ and the way for
weighting the different environmental impacts.
The weighting of environmental problems is usually seen as the
most controversial and difficult step in an assessment.
Diunduh dari:
……. 5/1/2013
Energy and Buildings 36 (2004) 1021–1027
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT AND LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT OF
HEATING AND AIR
CONDITIONING SYSTEMS, A SIMPLIfiED CASE STUDY
Matjaz Prek∗
The Eco-indicator method has resolved these problems. The
LCA method has been expanded to include a weighting method.
This has enabled one single score to be calculated for the total
environmental impact based on the calculated effects , as is
schematically shown in Figure.
During the development of the weighting method for the Ecoindicator much attention was given to defining the environmental
impact. The problem lies in determining the weighting factors.
In this method, the so-called Distance-to-Target principle was
chosen.
Diunduh dari:
……. 5/1/2013
Energy and Buildings 36 (2004) 1021–1027
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT AND LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT OF
HEATING AND AIR
CONDITIONING SYSTEMS, A SIMPLIfiED CASE STUDY
Matjaz Prek∗
A recently developed life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) is the
Eco-indicator 99 [6], the successor of the Eco-indicator 95
method.
Eco-indicator 99 methodology assesses the impact of emissions
to human beings and ecosystems.
Ecological impact is represented by the potentially affected
fraction (PAF) or potentially disappeared fraction (PDF) of
species, since the environmental impact is given as the global
warming potential (GWP), ozone depletion potential (ODP), etc.
The impact on human well-being is measured by disability
adjusted life years (DALY). This represents the years of life lost
and years lived disabled due to the impact of emissions and is
based on a approach described in [15,16].
For a given process, the emissions data are classified in several
impact categories and characterized in common units for each
category based on impact factors.
The improvements have been made for damage categories
themselves, inclusion of land-use as an impact or impact
category, inclusion of source depletion, better modelling of
damage functions and inclusion of cultural theory as a tool to
manage subjectivity.
Diunduh dari:
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Life Cycle Assessment Methods for Building Materials Recovery and
Reuse
George Guy, The Catholic University of America
Benjamin Holsinger, The Catholic University of America
Jim Schulman, The Community Forklift
This paper presents the results of a streamlined life cycle assessment (LCA) of
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and avoidance from one-year’s operation of a
community non-profit reused building materials store (RBMS).
The hypothesis was that a representative RBMS would provide a greater avoidance
of GHG emissions than will result from its operations.The mix of materials types in
any RBMS and lack of detailed inventories posed unique challenges in this
assessment.
A hybrid approach of economic input-output (EIO) LCA and direct process inventory
and impact assessment was taken to overcome data inventory obstacles1. The
environmental attribute calculated in this assessment were GHG as measured in
CO2 equivalents (CO2e).
The assessment was performed on the Community Forklift (CF) non-profit in
Edmonston, MD in 20112. It was estimated that CF’s CO2e gross emissions for 2011
were approximately 285.6 tCO2e and its operations resulted in a gross 799.1 tCO2e
emissions avoidance. The net GHG impacts of CF for the year 2011 were -513.5
tCO2e. The largest GHG impacts occurred from donation pick-ups. The secondary
impacts were from building heating and electricity. The largest avoided impacts or
benefits came from the provision of reused building materials.
The recycling of mixed metals also had a significant positive impact.
The three R’s of Reduce, Reuse and Recycle are well-known by the average US
citizen as priorities for materials conservation and avoiding the impacts of waste. It
is estimated that approximately 30-40% of all US solid waste is a result of
construction and demolition (C&D) activities with an approximate 30% recycling
rate.
The C&D reuse rate is unknown, however, it is estimated to be a fraction of onepercent of the C&D waste produced in the US each year. RBMS and reuse have not
been well-analyzed, as compared to recycling, for their potential environmental
benefits to the building materials and construction industries.
This study also identifies areas of potential environmental improvement by the
RBMS.
Diunduh dari: http://lcacenter.org/lcaxii/abstracts/521.html ……. 5/1/2013
CO-PRODUCT ALLOCATION IN LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT:
A CASE STUDY
Extended Abstract 2009-645-AWMA
Katherine A. Edwards AND Robert P. Anex
Trinity Consultants, 106 Main Street South, Suite 201, Stillwater, MN
55082
LCA is a helpful tool for measuring the energy and environmental impacts
of a product. Allocation plays an important role in LCA.
Assumptions made during allocation can have a significant impact on the
overall LCA result.
In the illustration developed here it was shown that GHG co-product
credits for ethanol and subsequently the overall life cycle GHG emissions,
depend on assumptions made regarding the end use of the co-products.
The method presented in this paper can likely be adapted to determine
co-product credits associated with both feed and fertilizer co-products
from the ever increasing number and types of biorefinery co-products.
Co- product credits for these applications may vary with the level of coproduct used for a specific application. In the case of animal feed the
value of the co-product most likely depends on the amount fed and in the
case of fertilizer the value to the soil most likely depends on the amount
applied.
The case study presented in this paper demonstrates that assumptions
are an important aspect and play a significant role in the overall results of
LCA.
Diunduh dari: www.trinityconsultants.com/WorkArea/DownloadAsset.aspx?id... …….
5/1/2013
. J. Dvarionienė, G. Zobėlaitė-Noreikienė, J. Kruopienė, and Ž Stasiškienė (2012)
Application of the Life-Cycle Assessment Method for Pollution Prevention
in Klaipėda Sea Port.
Journal of Coastal Research
doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.2112/JCOASTRES-D-11-00167.1
Lithuania is one of the countries that have ratified the Marpol 73/78 Convention,
which foresees the tools of reduction and prevention of sea pollution by bilge water
and other substances. The Directive of the European Parliament and Council
2000/59/EB is addressed to the reduction of waste onboard ships and its wash
overboard.
Analysis of the ships entering Klaipėda sea port has estimated that oil waste
constitutes about 74% of the whole collected waste amount. Engine bilge water is
specific and hazardous to the environment because it is a liquid compound of water
and oil products capable of making steady emulsions. It also acquires specific
properties during various technological processes. Equipment, technological
processes, specificity of the control related to combustibility and flammability, as well
as conformity to the requirements of the International and European Union Rights,
technological process management, and documents are needed for the
management of this specific waste. For this reason, separation of this oily water from
the common oil-polluted waste and analysis of these streams of waste treatment are
of great importance to enhance the effectiveness of environmental protection during
the management process of this oily waste.
Applying a system approach to the oily waste in the port, we set up a waste
management system algorithm based on the life cycle. The system of port waste
management is a set of technological processes, each of them performing a certain
function and requiring stock, electric energy, fuel, transport, heat, technological
equipment, etc. Having made the environmental assessment, a suggestion was
made to convert the waste resulting from the engine bilge water treatment into
energy and to use it in a technological process when closing (finishing) the life cycle.
In this paper, a life-cycle assessment (LCA) was performed to identify and quantify
the environmental impacts caused by the ship-generated waste management,
focusing on oily waters of the port of Klaipėda. LCA methodology was used to
evaluate the environmental performance of ship-generated waste management of
Klaipėda port, according to international standards.
Diunduh dari:
http://www.jcronline.org/doi/abs/10.2112/JCOASTRES-D-11-00167.1…….
5/1/2013
The environmental impact assessment of wheat and barley
production by using life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology
F. FallahpourA. AminghafouriA. Ghalegolab BehbahaniM. Bannayan
Environment, Development and Sustainability.Volume (Year): 14 (2012)
Issue (Month): 6 (December). Pages: 979-992
This study was conducted to assess the impact of cereals (wheat and barley)
production on environment under rainfed and irrigated farming systems in northeast
of Iran. Life cycle assessment (LCA) was used as a methodology to assess all
environmental impacts of cereal grain production through accounting and appraising
the resource consumption and emissions.
The functional unit considered in this study was one ton grain yield production under
different rates of nitrogen application. All associated impacts of different range of N
fertilizer application were evaluated on the basis of the functional unit. In this study,
three major impact categories considered were climate change, acidification, and
eutrophication. In order to prepare final evaluation of all impacts on environment, the
EcoX was determined.
Results represented that, under low consumption of N fertilizer, the environmental
impacts of both rainfed farming systems of wheat and barley was less than irrigated
farming systems. Considering grain yield as response factor to different fertilizer
application level, irrigated farming systems of wheat and barley with the range of
160–180 and >220 (Kg N ha −1 ) showed the maximum impact on environment.
It seems LCA is an appropriate method to quantify the impact of utilized agricultural
inputs and different managements on environment. Copyright Springer
Science+Business Media B.V. 2012.
Diunduh dari:
http://ideas.repec.org/a/spr/endesu/v14y2012i6p979-
Environmental impact assessment using a weighting method for
alternative air-conditioning systems
KatarÃna Heikkila
Building and Environment 39 (2004) 1133 – 1140
Requirements for the design of HVAC systems with low environmental impact have
become accepted in the past decade. However, the environmental performance is
complicated to evaluate, because the process is a ected by several parameters. This
paper presents a case study, in which a previously established method for
environmental evaluation is adapted. Two alternative air handling units were
analysed using life cycle assessment including the weighting step. The results,
according to the weighting method applied as well as the material assumptions,
show that the user stage of the life cycle of both units is the critical part of the overall
impact.
In an LCA study, the whole life cycle of a product or a system is taken into account.
This means that the assessment includes the extraction of resources, production
processes, the use and waste treatment of the product assessed. The LCA study
consists of four stages: goal and scope, inventory analysis (LCI), impact assessment
(LCIA) and interpretation.
The goal and scope stage speciÿes the intention of the study, as well as its
application and audience. Moreover, limitations of the study are speciÿed and the
functional unit, which is a quantiÿed performance of a product system , is deÿned. In
the LCI, the inventory data on materials and energy ows for the product during its life
cycle are collected. This is the most extensive and time-consuming phase of the
study, because the information is not always available.
Since the production processes of a material involve several stages (producers,
transporters, etc.), the compilation of the information is time consuming and
sometimes fragmentary.
Results of the LCI are given as emissions (in kg) with various e ects on the
environment. In next phase, the LCIA, the various kinds of emissions are assigned to
impact categories (e.g. climate change), and category indicator results are calculated
(e.g. kg of CO2 equivalents). In the interpretation phase, the information from the
earlier phases is evaluated.
Diunduh dari:
stuff.mit.edu/.../..……. 6/1/2013
Improving eco-efficiency of Amsterdam water supply: A LCA
approach
P. K. Mohapatra, M. A. Siebel, H. J. Gijzen, J. P. van der Hoek and C. A. Groot
Journal of Water Supply: Research and Technology—AQUA . 51.(4) 2002
Amsterdam Water Supply produces 70 million m3 drinking water per annum in its
Leiduin plant and is considering increasing the plant capacity to 83 million m3 per
annum.
The existing plant is a conventional surface water treatment plant. For capacity
expansion, two alternative treatment schemes, each using reverse osmosis, are
being considered. In these considerations, environmental impact plays an important
role.
Environmental impact of the plant was assessed with life cycle analysis. The total
impact for annual production from the existing and the two future alternative
schemes are 2.89E+04, 3.65E+04 and 3.44E+04 eco-points respectively.
The significant impact contributors are the use of conventional energy, softening and
the granular activated carbon process. Impact reduction up to 73% may be achieved
by the use of 100% green energy, the use of an alternative chemical [Na2CO3 in
place of NaOH] in the softening process and doubling the carbon run time.
Diunduh dari:
. Life Cycle environmental Assessment (LCA) of sanitation systems including
sewerage: Case of vertical flow constructed wetlands versus activated sludge
P. Rouxa, C. Boutinb, E. Rischa, A. Héduitc
12th IWA International Conference on Wetland Systems for Water Pollution Control
Venise ITA, 4-8 octobre 2010
The article presents the application of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) to a
complete sanitation system including the sewer network. It first describes
the LCA hypothesis which concerns two types of waste water-treatment
plant with the same daily nominal load in BOD5 and associated to the
same sewer network derived from the Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) database
Ecoinvent.
The two wastewater treatment systems compared are (i) a “Vertical Flow
Constructed Wetlands (VFCW)” for which a detailed inventory was
elaborated and (ii) an “activated sludge” stemming from the LCI database
Ecoinvent.
LCA scores of VFCW highlight the importance of eutrophication which can
be easily explained by the incomplete removal of total N and total P in a
VFCW.
In a more surprising way, the impact of the network seems considerable.
Finally, the article analyses the applicability and limitations of LCA for
wastewater treatment with regard to water quality and the needed
improvements of water status in LCA.
Diunduh dari:
hal.cirad.fr/docs/00/57/24/79/PDF/MO2010-
METODE
LCA is a method developed to carry out a comparison of environmental
impacts of products, technologies or services on their whole life cycle, so
called from “cradle to grave” (Haes et al., 2002). The emissions to all
environmental compartments and resource consumption during
production, use and disposal are considered.
The LCA framework is defined according to international standards (ISO
14040-14044) and for its effective implementation databases of
processes, material and energy flows are used (Ecoinvent database in
this study).
The LCA method consists of 4 main phases described in this paper: (1)
Goal and scope definition (2) Life Cycle Inventory - LCI (3) Life Cycle
Impact Assessment – LCIA (4) Interpretation.
Within the LCA conceptual framework, impact categories have been
defined following the description of environmental pathways, i.e. causeeffect chains, as shown with some examples in Figure 1.
This results in defining two main impact categories for Life Cycle Impact
Assessment (LCIA), the first one being the MIDPOINT indicator category
and the second being defined as ENDPOINT indicators. While midpoint
indicators do not account for potential damages they may cause to the
final targets, endpoint indicators are damage-oriented.
They must be understood as issues of environmental concern, such as
human health, extinction of species, and availability of resources for future
generations.
In this paper, the presentation of the results will use mainly midpoint
indicators from the CML method (Guinée et al., 2001) and in one case the
endpoint Eco-indicator method (Goedkoop et al, 2001).
Diunduh dari:
hal.cirad.fr/docs/00/57/24/79/PDF/MO2010-
Application of life cycle assessment to chemical processes
A. Burgess , D. J. Brennan
Chemical Engineering Science 56 (2001) 2589}2604
The literature on the application of life cycle assessment (LCA) to process
industry products and particularly to chemical processes has been
reviewed.
The main purpose of an LCA is to provide a quantitative assessment of
the environmental impact of products over their entire life cycle, with a
view to making improvements.
Application to processes, which are key parts of the life cycle, is important
in the context of process design and development, and in the analysis of
processing chains. Reference is made to some important techniques for
environmental assessment which interface with LCA when evaluating
processes.
The essential features of the LCA methodology are reviewed and some
specific difficulties in the application of LCA are identified and discussed.
These difficulties include allocation of impacts to multiple products, the
de"nition of system boundaries, the quality of data, temporal and spatial
characteristics, and impact assessment methods. Consideration is given
to the combined use of LCA with economic evaluations, which is important
in the process industry context.
Finally, some cases of the application of LCA to speci"c chemical
processes are reviewed.
Diunduh dari:
……. 6/1/2013
Application of life cycle assessment to chemical processes
A. Burgess , D. J. Brennan
Chemical Engineering Science 56 (2001) 2589}2604
Life cycle assessment
The use of LCA as a tool for assessing the environ mental impacts of products,
processes and activities is gaining wide acceptance. All direct and indirect
environmental impacts associated with the product, process or activity are included
in the assessment. The scope of the assessment encompasses extraction and
processing of raw materials, manufacturing and assembly processes, product
distribution, use, re-use, maintenance, recycling and "nal disposal (Consoli et al.,
1993; Kniel, Delmarco, & Petrie, 1996).
LCAs identify and quantify the process #ows and systems which are
major contributors to environmental degradation (Lee, O'Callaghan, &
Allen, 1995). This is important for identifying the areas for improvement
which will have the greatest in#uence on total life cycle impacts (Berkhout
& Howes, 1997).
Unlike some pollution prevention techniques which are centred around
single issues such as recyclability or reduced toxicity, LCA considers a
range of environmental impact categories (Curran, 1993; Lee et al.,
1995). Furthermore, while typical approaches to environmental protection
select the most effcient and cost-e!ective processes before determining
ways of reducing environmental impacts, environmental considerations
are part of the decision-making process from the beginning when using
LCA (Harsch, 1996).
1. Berkhout, F., & Howes, R. (1997). The adoption of life-cycle approaches by industry: patterns
and impacts. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 20, 71}94.
2. Consoli, F., Boustead, I., Fava, J., Franklin, W., Jensen A., de Oude, N., Parish, R.,
Postlethwaite, D., Quay, B., Seguin, J., & Vignon, B. (1993). Guidelines for life-cycle
assessment: A &Code of Practice'. SETAC.
3. Curran, M. (1993). Broad-based environmental life cycle assessment. Environmental Science
and Technology, 27(3), 431}436.
4. Harsch, M. (1996). Life-cycle assessment. Advanced Materials and Processes, 43}46.
5. Kniel, G. E., Delmarco, K., & Petrie, J. G. (1996). Life cycle assessment applied to process
design: Environmental and economic analysis and optimisation of a nitric acid plant.
Environmental Progress, 15(4), 221}228.
6. Lee, J., O'Callaghan, P., & Allen, D. (1995). Critical review of life cycle analysis and assessment
techniques & their application to commer- cial activities. Resources, Conservation & Recycling,
13, 37}56.
Diunduh dari:
……. 6/1/2013
. System
optimization for eco-design by using monetization
of environmental impacts: a strategy to convert bi-objective
to single-objective problems
Seong-Rin Lim, , Yoo Ri Kim , Seung H. Woo , Donghee Park , Jong Moon Park
Journal of Cleaner Production. Volume 39, January 2013, Pages 303–311
Eco-design is an essential way to reduce the environmental impacts and
economic cost of processes and systems, as well as products. Until now,
the majority of eco-design approaches have employed multi-objective
optimization methods to balance between environmental and economic
performances. However, the methods have limitations because multiobjective optimization requires decision makers to subjectively assign
weighting factors for objectives, i.e., environmental impacts and economic
cost.
This implies that, depending on decision makers' preference and
knowledge, different design solutions can be engendered for the same
design problem.
This study proposes an eco-design method which can generate a single
design solution by developing mathematical optimization models with a
single-objective function for environmental impacts and economic cost.
For the formulation of the single-objective function, environmental impacts
are monetized to external cost by using the Environmental Priority
Strategies. This enables the tradeoffs between environmental impacts and
economic cost in the same unit, i.e., monetary unit.
As a case study, the proposed method is applied to the eco-design of a
water reuse system in an industrial plant.
This study can contribute to improving the eco-efficiency of various
products, processes, and systems.
Diunduh dari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959652612003782 ……. 6/1/2013
. System optimization for eco-design by using monetization of
environmental impacts: a strategy to convert bi-objective to singleobjective problems
Seong-Rin Lim, , Yoo Ri Kim , Seung H. Woo , Donghee Park , Jong Moon Park
Journal of Cleaner Production. Volume 39, January 2013, Pages 303–311
Comparison of eco-design methods: (a) multi-objective optimization; (b)
proposed method converting a multi-objective problem to a singleobjective problem by using the monetization of environmental impacts to
economic cost.
Diunduh dari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959652612003782
……. 6/1/2013
. System optimization for eco-design by using monetization of
environmental impacts: a strategy to convert bi-objective to singleobjective problems
Seong-Rin Lim, , Yoo Ri Kim , Seung H. Woo , Donghee Park , Jong Moon Park
Journal of Cleaner Production. Volume 39, January 2013, Pages 303–311
Concept of the proposed eco-design method. Environmental impacts of principal
contributors are monetized to external costs by using the Environmental Priority
Strategies (EPS) as a life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) method for life cycle
assessment (LCA), which enables the tradeoffs between environmental impacts and
economic cost. The monetized external costs and economic costs are formulated
and combined to develop a mathematical optimization model with a single-objective
function.
Diunduh dari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959652612003782
……. 6/1/2013
. System optimization for eco-design by using monetization of
environmental impacts: a strategy to convert bi-objective to singleobjective problems
Seong-Rin Lim, , Yoo Ri Kim , Seung H. Woo , Donghee Park , Jong Moon Park
Journal of Cleaner Production. Volume 39, January 2013, Pages 303–311
Generalized superstructure model used to generate a water supply system utilizing
freshwater and wastewater. Modified from the model in Lim and Park (2007).
Diunduh dari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959652612003782
……. 6/1/2013
. Life
cycle assessment as a tool in environmental impact
assessment
Arnold Tukker
Environmental Impact Assessment Review. Volume 20, Issue 4, August 2000, Pages
435–456
Various authors have stated that Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) differs
fundamentally from product Life Cycle Assessment (LCA).
This paper shows the contrary. LCA is a specific elaboration of a generic
environmental evaluation framework. EIA is a procedure rather than a tool, in which
LCA certainly may be useful.
Particularly in strategic and project EIAs, environmental comparisons of process and
abatement alternatives may be relevant. Although these alternatives may lead to
different emissions and effects at the location of the process itself (which is usually
the focus in project EIAs), they can also influence the demand for activities upstream
and downstream in the production chain.
Including such secondary effects in an EIA, which may be crucial for a proper
comparison of alternatives, requires a system approach that takes into account all
relevant effects.
This is, in fact, LCA. A review of five case studies shows that it is quite feasible to
use elements of LCA in EIA.
Diunduh dari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0195925599000451
……. 6/1/2013
A typical environmental evaluation in an LCA
Diunduh dari:
……. 6/1/2013
. Life cycle impact assessment and risk assessment of
chemicals — a methodological comparison
Stig Irving Olsen , Frans Møller Christensen , Michael Hauschild , Finn Pedersen ,
Henrik Fred Larsen , Jens Tørsløv
Environmental Impact Assessment Review. Volume 21, Issue 4, July 2001, Pages
385–404
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) and Risk Assessment (RA) are two different
tools in environmental management.
This article identifies harmonies, discrepancies, and relations between the
two tools exemplified by the RA principles of the European Commission
(EC) and the LCA method, Environmental Design of Industrial Products
(EDIP), developed in Denmark, respectively.
A very important feature of LCA is the relative assessment due to the use
of a functional unit. RA, on the other hand, is an absolute assessment,
which requires very specific and detailed information on e.g. the exposure
conditions.
It is concluded that the conceptual background and the purpose of the
tools are different, but that there are overlaps where they may benefit
from each other and complement each other in an overall environmental
effort.
Diunduh dari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0195925501000750
……. 6/1/2013
. Life
cycle impact assessment and risk assessment of
chemicals — a methodological comparison
Stig Irving Olsen , Frans Møller Christensen , Michael Hauschild , Finn Pedersen ,
Henrik Fred Larsen , Jens Tørsløv
Environmental Impact Assessment Review. Volume 21, Issue 4, July 2001, Pages
385–404
Schematic overview of the principles of assessment of chemicals (Bro-Rasmussen,
1998). TGD and EUSES (the accompanying software model) can be used for
preliminary screening (priority setting), as well as for risk characterisation. The
principles of TGD can also be used for more specific RA, depending on purpose and
data accessibility. The RA has to quantify actual risks, and therefore, specific
information on the actual conditions of a given population is necessary. This is not
immediately possible in EUSES.
Diunduh dari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0195925501000750
……. 6/1/2013
. Life cycle impact assessment and risk assessment of chemicals —
a methodological comparison
Stig Irving Olsen , Frans Møller Christensen , Michael Hauschild , Finn Pedersen ,
Henrik Fred Larsen , Jens Tørsløv
Environmental Impact Assessment Review. Volume 21, Issue 4, July 2001, Pages
385–404
Schematic presentation of the correlation between the product-oriented and the
chemical-oriented approach.
This is a very simplified description, because chemical substances can form part of a
product's life cycle in many different ways, e.g. a chemical substance can be the
product itself in some cases (if so, just a few fields of application are assessed), in
other cases, it may be a raw material or an auxiliary material. It might also appear as
a decomposition product/by-product in processes.
Diunduh dari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0195925501000750
……. 6/1/2013
. Life cycle impact assessment and risk assessment of chemicals — a
methodological comparison
Stig Irving Olsen , Frans Møller Christensen , Michael Hauschild , Finn Pedersen ,
Henrik Fred Larsen , Jens Tørsløv
Environmental Impact Assessment Review. Volume 21, Issue 4, July 2001, Pages
385–404
Relationship between RA and LCA according to the time and site specificity.
Diunduh dari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0195925501000750
……. 6/1/2013
. Life cycle impact assessment and risk assessment of chemicals — a
methodological comparison
Stig Irving Olsen , Frans Møller Christensen , Michael Hauschild , Finn Pedersen ,
Henrik Fred Larsen , Jens Tørsløv
Environmental Impact Assessment Review. Volume 21, Issue 4, July 2001, Pages
385–404
In principle, the assessments of emissions in LCA and RA are based on the same
data, but end up with different results. LCA furthermore includes use of ressources
and land.
Diunduh dari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0195925501000750
……. 6/1/2013
Braz. J. Chem. Eng. vol.21 no.3 São Paulo July/Sept. 2004
INCORPORATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT CRITERIA IN THE
DESIGN AND OPERATION OF CHEMICAL PROCESSES
P.E. Bauer; R. Maciel Filho
Environmental impact assessment is becoming indispensable for the
design and operation of chemical plants.
Structured and consistent methods for this purpose have experienced a
rapid development.
The more rigorous and sophisticated these methods become, the greater
is the demand for convenient tools. On the other hand, despite the
incredible advances in process simulators, some aspects have still not
been sufficiently covered. To date, applications of these programs to
quantify environmental impacts have been restricted to straightforward
examples of steady-state processes.
In this work, a life-cycle assessment implementation with the aim of
process design will be described, with a brief discussion of a dynamic
simulation for analysis of transient state operations, such as process startup.
A case study shows the importance of this analysis in making possible
operation at a high performance level with reduced risks to the
environment.
Diunduh dari: http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0104-66322004000300005
……. 6/1/2013
Braz. J. Chem. Eng. vol.21 no.3 São Paulo July/Sept. 2004
INCORPORATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT CRITERIA IN THE
DESIGN AND OPERATION OF CHEMICAL PROCESSES
P.E. Bauer; R. Maciel Filho
LCA METHODOLOGY
LCA is a tool used to evaluate the environmental effects of a product, process or
system from extraction of the raw materials (oil, ores, fresh water, air, and so on) to
the final disposal of materials in the environment, commonly known as "cradle to
grave" analysis. LCA is normally applied (ISO 14040, 1997), as shown in Figure 1, in
four main phases:
1) goal and scope definition,
2) inventory analysis,
3) impact assessment, and
4) interpretation.
Diunduh dari: http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0104-66322004000300005
……. 6/1/2013
Braz. J. Chem. Eng. vol.21 no.3 São Paulo July/Sept. 2004
INCORPORATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT CRITERIA IN THE
DESIGN AND OPERATION OF CHEMICAL PROCESSES
P.E. Bauer; R. Maciel Filho
LCA METHODOLOGY
In the first phase the purpose of the work is defined and the system boundaries
(temporal, geographical, and technological) and mainly the environmental impact
categories to be used are identified.
The second phase is concerned with data collection and the calculation procedures
for preparing the materials and energy inputs and outputs of any unit process
producing the LCI. These procedures may be almost completely rigorously
implemented using the chemical process simulation software.
The third phase is impact assessment (LCIA), and it is aimed at understanding and
evaluating the magnitude and significance of potential environmental impacts of the
system under study. It is essentially a quantitative procedure to identify, characterise,
and assess the potential impacts of environmental interventions identified in the
second phase.
The final phase in an LCA study is interpretation, which may be defined as the
systematic procedure to identify, qualify, check, and evaluate the results of the LCI
and LCIA. The main aim of interpretation is to analyse the results according to the
goals and scope and to formulate the conclusions and the recommendations that can
be drawn from the LCA. It can comprise five different kinds of analysis (Heijungs and
Kleijn, 2000):
1) contribution analysis,
2) perturbation analysis,
3) uncertainty analysis,
4) comparative analysis, and
5) discernibility analysis.
The chemical process design follows a series of stages, beginning with a preliminary
structuring of the process, based on an input-output description (Turton et al., 1998)
and concluding with a flowsheet of the final process. LCA can assist in the
environmental performance analysis during the whole sequence of stages.
1. Heijungs, R. and Kleijn, R. 2000. Numerical Approaches towards Life-Cycle Interpretation: Five
Examples, WP-SSP Working Paper 2000.001, Centre of Environmental Science (CML), Leiden
University, The Netherlands .
2. Turton, R., Bailie, R.C., Whiting, W.B., and Shaeiwitz, J.A. 1998. Analysis, Synthesis, and
Design of Chemical Processes, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall Inc .
Diunduh dari: http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0104-66322004000300005
……. 6/1/2013
. Environmental Impact Assessment – methodology with special
emphasis on European pork production
K. Reckmann , I. Traulsen , J. Krieter
Journal of Environmental Management. Volume 107, 30 September 2012, Pages 102–109
One of the most discussed topics worldwide is climate change, upon
which livestock production is known to have a great environmental impact.
There are different methods to measure these environmental impacts,
some of which are mentioned in this review.
It especially focuses on the method of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA),
because it is widely used, of high relevance and good quality. This review
highlights a sample of the few published European LCA studies on pork
production.
These assessments result in an average global warming potential of
3.6 kg CO2- eq per kg pork, ranging from 2.6 to 6.3 kg CO2- eq per kg
pork.
Additionally, it illustrates the main limitations of the methodology itself (e.g.
data intensiveness, different allocation techniques) and its application in
pork production (e.g. limited data availability, use of multiple functional
units, varying system boundaries).
The missing comparability of various studies arising from a vague
standard still represents the main problem in LCA. Therefore, a new
standardisation and the development of a more exhaustive database
would generate a future trend.
Diunduh dari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S030147971200196X……. 6/1/2013
. Environmental Impact Assessment – methodology with special
emphasis on European pork production
K. Reckmann , I. Traulsen , J. Krieter
Journal of Environmental Management. Volume 107, 30 September 2012, Pages 102–109
Stages of an LCA (according to ISO, 2006a).
Diunduh dari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S030147971200196X……. 6/1/2013
. Environmental Impact Assessment – methodology with special
emphasis on European pork production
K. Reckmann , I. Traulsen , J. Krieter
Journal of Environmental Management. Volume 107, 30 September 2012, Pages 102–109
System boundaries of the pork production chain. In a typical cradle-to-gate study,
dark grey boxes are not taken into account.
Diunduh dari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S030147971200196X……. 6/1/2013
Is it feasible to address indoor climate issues in LCA?
Åsa Jönsson
Environmental Impact Assessment Review. Volume 20, Issue 2, April 2000, Pages 241–25.
Life cycle assessment (LCA) is frequently used as a tool for
environmental assessment of buildings and building products.
Generally, the main focus of LCA is the impact on the regional and global
external environment. However, there are important environmental
problems related to buildings that arise locally in connection with the
indoor environment, such as effects on human health.
The approaches of LCA, measurements of emissions from building
materials, and indoor climate assessment were studied to see how they
relate to each other from a methodological point of view, using volatile
organic compound (VOC) emissions as an example.
The possibility of including indoor climate issues as an impact category in
LCA of building products was investigated. Only very limited aspects of
the indoor climate could be addressed in LCA; thus, indoor climate issues
are preferably dealt with separately.
Diunduh dari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0195925599000396 ……. 6/1/2013
Is it feasible to address indoor climate issues in LCA?
Åsa Jönsson
Environmental Impact Assessment Review. Volume 20, Issue 2, April 2000, Pages 241–25.
Environmental loads from the technical systems contribute to effects of
various orders in the natural environment
Diunduh dari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0195925599000396 ……. 6/1/2013
Is it feasible to address indoor climate issues in LCA?
Åsa Jönsson
Environmental Impact Assessment Review. Volume 20, Issue 2, April 2000, Pages 241–25.
Life cycle assessment (LCA), material emissions assessment (MEA), and
indoor climate assessment (ICA) approaches, with the most common
types of input data
Diunduh dari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0195925599000396 ……. 6/1/2013
Is it feasible to address indoor climate issues in LCA?
Åsa Jönsson
Environmental Impact Assessment Review. Volume 20, Issue 2, April 2000, Pages 241–25.
Life cycle assessment (LCA) and material emissions assessment (MEA)
start out from the technical system to assess the potential effects on the
natural environment, whereas indoor climate assessment (ICA) aims at
finding the causes of observed effects in the natural environment
Elements in the life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) stage, according to the draft of
ISO 14042
Diunduh dari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0195925599000396 ……. 6/1/2013
. COMBINING LIFECYCLE AND RISK ASSESSMENTS OF MINERAL
WASTE REUSE SCENARIOS FOR DECISION MAKING SUPPORT
Enrico Benetto , Ligia Tiruta-Barna , Yves Perrodin
Environmental Impact Assessment Review. Volume 27, Issue 3, April 2007, Pages
266–285
Lack of regulations and standards on mineral waste recycling makes Life
Cycle Assessment (LCA) and Ecological Risk Assessment (ERA) useful
methods for environmental assessment of recycling scenarios.
An unsolved problem arises whenever two scenarios of recycling have to
be compared according to both ERA and LCA impact results considered
simultaneously. A methodology to combine LCA and ERA results and tools
toward Integrated Environmental Assessment (IEA) is proposed together
with three application examples based on case studies.
The most effective combination approach is to define further impact
categories for ERA to be considered with the standard LCA ones. Then,
the use of a multicriteria analysis method was proved to be an efficient
way to rank alternative scenarios with respect to all the results.
The key issues to be further researched are discussed and proposals are
suggested.
Diunduh dari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0195925506001296……. 6/1/2013
. COMBINING LIFECYCLE AND RISK ASSESSMENTS OF MINERAL
WASTE REUSE SCENARIOS FOR DECISION MAKING SUPPORT
Enrico Benetto , Ligia Tiruta-Barna , Yves Perrodin
Environmental Impact Assessment Review. Volume 27, Issue 3, April 2007, Pages
266–285
Relationship between LCA and ERA (from Flemström et al.,
2004).
Diunduh dari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0195925506001296……. 6/1/2013
. COMBINING LIFECYCLE AND RISK ASSESSMENTS OF MINERAL
WASTE REUSE SCENARIOS FOR DECISION MAKING SUPPORT
Enrico Benetto , Ligia Tiruta-Barna , Yves Perrodin
Environmental Impact Assessment Review. Volume 27, Issue 3, April 2007, Pages
266–285
Overall IEA (Integrated Environmental Assessment) scheme.
Diunduh dari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0195925506001296……. 6/1/2013
. COMBINING LIFECYCLE AND RISK ASSESSMENTS OF MINERAL
WASTE REUSE SCENARIOS FOR DECISION MAKING SUPPORT
Enrico Benetto , Ligia Tiruta-Barna , Yves Perrodin
Environmental Impact Assessment Review. Volume 27, Issue 3, April 2007, Pages
266–285
Scheme for combining LCA and ERA results.
Diunduh dari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0195925506001296……. 6/1/2013
. COMBINING LIFECYCLE AND RISK ASSESSMENTS OF MINERAL
WASTE REUSE SCENARIOS FOR DECISION MAKING SUPPORT
Enrico Benetto , Ligia Tiruta-Barna , Yves Perrodin
Environmental Impact Assessment Review. Volume 27, Issue 3, April 2007, Pages
266–285
ERA (a. from ADEME, 1999) and LCA (b, from Birgisdóttir, 2005)
scenarios considered in the application example 1.
Diunduh dari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0195925506001296……. 6/1/2013
. COMBINING LIFECYCLE AND RISK ASSESSMENTS OF MINERAL
WASTE REUSE SCENARIOS FOR DECISION MAKING SUPPORT
Enrico Benetto , Ligia Tiruta-Barna , Yves Perrodin
Environmental Impact Assessment Review. Volume 27, Issue 3, April 2007, Pages
266–285
ERA (a, from POLDEN, 2002) and LCA (b, from Mroueh et al., 1999)
scenarios considered in the application example 2.
Diunduh dari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0195925506001296……. 6/1/2013
. COMBINING LIFECYCLE AND RISK ASSESSMENTS OF MINERAL
WASTE REUSE SCENARIOS FOR DECISION MAKING SUPPORT
Enrico Benetto , Ligia Tiruta-Barna , Yves Perrodin
Environmental Impact Assessment Review. Volume 27, Issue 3, April 2007, Pages
266–285
ERA scenario considered in the application example 3.
Diunduh dari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0195925506001296……. 6/1/2013
Aggregating and evaluating the results of different
Environmental Impact Assessment methods
Stavros E Daniel , Giannis T Tsoulfas , Costas P Pappis , Nikos P Rachaniotis
Ecological Indicators. Volume 4, Issue 2, June 2004, Pages 125–138
The role of life cycle analysis (LCA) in identifying and measuring the
environmental impact of extended supply chains, i.e., chains involving
both forward and reverse activities, is very important.
Particularly, in the case of alternative supply chain management policies
or scenarios, life cycle analysis may significantly help to quantify the
environmental result of these alternatives for the purpose of comparison
and decision making. It is debatable, however, whether such comparison
is always possible.
Indeed, life cycle analysis has often raised discussion and disagreements,
especially regarding the stage of Impact Assessment (valuation), and,
until now, there is no generally accepted framework of analysis.
In this paper, different models are used in order to extend the usability of
the Environmental Design of Industrial Products method of Impact
Assessment.
Furthermore, research results that are produced by applying different
methods of Impact Assessment are examined in the cases of the recovery
and disposal chains of lead–acid batteries.
Diunduh dari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1470160X04000160 ……. 6/1/2013
Aggregating and evaluating the results of different
Environmental Impact Assessment methods
Stavros E Daniel , Giannis T Tsoulfas , Costas P Pappis , Nikos P Rachaniotis
Ecological Indicators. Volume 4, Issue 2, June 2004, Pages 125–138
LCA polygon of the reverse supply chain resources consumption.
Diunduh dari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1470160X04000160 ……. 6/1/2013
Aggregating and evaluating the results of different
Environmental Impact Assessment methods
Stavros E Daniel , Giannis T Tsoulfas , Costas P Pappis , Nikos P Rachaniotis
Ecological Indicators. Volume 4, Issue 2, June 2004, Pages 125–138
LCA polygon of the disposal chain resources consumption.
Diunduh dari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1470160X04000160 ……. 6/1/2013
Aggregating and evaluating the results of different
Environmental Impact Assessment methods
Stavros E Daniel , Giannis T Tsoulfas , Costas P Pappis , Nikos P Rachaniotis
Ecological Indicators. Volume 4, Issue 2, June 2004, Pages 125–138
LCA polygon of the reverse supply chain ecological impacts.
Diunduh dari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1470160X04000160 ……. 6/1/2013
Aggregating and evaluating the results of different
Environmental Impact Assessment methods
Stavros E Daniel , Giannis T Tsoulfas , Costas P Pappis , Nikos P Rachaniotis
Ecological Indicators. Volume 4, Issue 2, June 2004, Pages 125–138
LCA polygon of the disposal chain ecological impacts.
Diunduh dari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1470160X04000160 ……. 6/1/2013