An Affluent Society
1953-1960
The Golden Age
A Changing Economy
• “Golden Age” of capitalism and “Family values”. Standard of
living rose consistently from 1947-1973, and 60% of Americans
called themselves” Middle Class”
• Consumerism stronger than ever - begin to define ourselves by
what we own. Greater acceptance of big government- even
without a crisis, after 20 years it’s an expectation
• Generally an era of conformity (which feels good after so many
years of uncertainty) Establishes modern version of “family
values”
• The last decade of our industrial age- we begin shift towards a
service based economy rather than manufacturing. Number of
salaried (rather than hourly) workers rose by 60%- now you
have a “career”, rather than a “job”
A Suburban Nation
• By 1960 America has 40% of the world’s wealth- and 6% of the
world’s population
• Housing boom- by 1955 60% of Americans own their own home
(30% at turn of century) By 1960 25% of all homes in America
less than 15 years old. Home ownership becomes strongly tied to
“American Dream”
• Levittown: most famous suburban development
10,000 homes on 1,200 acres priced for the
“Average” family
Sunbelt vs Frostbelt
Air-conditioning invented in 1920s, but
becomes cost effective and popular in
1950s…. Begins population booms in the
SW (CA has largest pop in nation by
1963) Changes demography.
Cold War (Military) spending a big part of
this- West builds aircraft, missiles and
radar, South has large numbers of
military bases and builds ships.Northeast
does submarines- but for 1st time they
are losing population
The Growth of the West
• Cities that grew in the 50s were different from the
eastern centers of gilded age America. Rather
than a large downtown- cities like LA, Phoenix,
and Houston were “decentralized” – clusters of
suburban neighborhoods linked by highways
rather than public transportation
• Life centered around the car- people drove to/from
work, did shopping at malls/plazas. 1/3 of
California was covered with pavement, and grass
becomes the most “cultivated” crop in US
Consumer Culture
• “The luxuries of today are the necessities of tomorrow” (Macys) Never
before had products been more available, and a booming economy mean
more and more people were involved- and freedom became about
choices.
• Consumerism replaced economic independence as the goal of
Americans. Attitudes towards debt continued to change- credit cards
become common
• And it is a weapon in the cold war- an indicator that we are “winning” if our
standard of living is higher.
The TV World
• An important agent of conformity
etc… came into homes and showed
an “idealized”,, but seemingly attainable, lifestyle. Squeaky clean,
white, and WASPy. (some variations, like I love Lucy, which
featured a multi-ethnic family)
• By the end of the 50s, 90% of Americans have a TV and NBC,
CBS and ABD (soon to be C) are thriving networks.
• Advertising drives consumerism
A New Ford
• Had become important during the 20s- but really help define the
culture of the 50s. By 1960 80% of Americans have a car (but
only 14% have more than 1)
• Transforms demographics, where we live, work and shop. Drive
ins, and fast food chains born
• Eisenhower’s highways made travel easier- more people travel for
vacation (national parks)
Women at Work and Home
• Women had been key part of workforce during war- but
there was a backlash of “proper” sphere once againwith “doctors” and “scientists” saying that women could
only find true “fulfillment” as homemakers.
• Dr Benjamin Spock wrote the best selling “Book of Baby
and Childcare” (1st to be widely read on the subject –
the idea that one plans for how to raise a kid is new)
emphasized that children cannot be well raised without
a mother’s primary influence. Women married younger,
(average age 20) Divorced less frequently, and had
more children (average 3.2 per family). ANOTHER thing
that separates us from communists- where many
women work
A Segregated Landscape
• Suburbia has never been as uniform as either it’s champions or critics claim.
There are “upper class” suburbs, “working class” suburbs etc- but the lack of
racial diversity was real. As late as the 1990s- 90% of suburban whites lived in
communities with less than 1% non white population – a legacy of de facto
segregation. Discrimination in housing sales is supposed to be illegal – but that
is REALLY hard to enforce.
• 800K units of public housing built in 50s- but not in the suburbs (they fought
and blocked) so it become associated with “inner city”.
• 7 million white Americans move to the suburbs during the 50s- and 3 million
nonwhites move to cities. A new group are 500k Puerto Rican immigrants.
(West Side Story)
• Only 12% of Blacks were in “White Collar” jobs – compared to 45% of whites
Religion and Anticommunism
• Communists are generally (officially) atheists- and we want
to be the opposite of communists- so there is an upswing
in church attendance. Over 50% of Americans belonged to
a church or synagogue, the highest % in modern history.
• Added “under God” to pledge, and “In God We Trust” to $$
in 1957
• Combo ideology from Protestants, Catholics, and Jews into
one size fits all “Judeo-Christian” heritage (after all, there
are a LOT of the same ideas in there). We were now
PROUD of our religious pluralism (makes us different from
the Nazis) and religious discrimination declines
significantly.
Prosperity and Politics
• After years of deprivation and postponement in depression and the
war- American consumers had saved $$ and were ready to spend, and
demand for consumer products exploded.
• Middle class expanding- by 1953 60% of non farm workers are “middle
class” (with incomes between $4000-7500)
• Those benefiting from this new prosperity wanted to maintain their
wealth, and became more interested in conservative policy rather than
gov’t spending. Republican party shifts focus from party of business to
representing interests of the “forgotten man” – hardworking citizens
who don’t like high taxes to pay for gov’t agencies
that don’t pay benefits to middle class
New Conservatism
• Libertarians: Want to make government MUCH smaller- b/c they say gov’t
automatically limits freedom
• Milton Friedman: an economist who challenged Keynes. He says that
virtually all gov’t functions should be privatized so they are more efficientand that minimum wage restricts the marketplace.
• New Conservatives thought of freedom and morality as intertwined (family
values etc) They generally wanted gov’t LESS involved with economy, but
MORE involved with regulating behavior, and ensuring morality in a world
that made them nervous. (didn’t like New Deal arts and alternative
lifestyles etc.)
The Eisenhower Era
Election of 1952
• 1952 was 1st “open” (no incumbent) election in quite some time.
• Eisenhower had been ”wooed” by both parties, he had never been political, he
had never even voted in an election! But he chose republican and “I like Ike” was
an incredibly successful slogan.
• In both 52 and 56 Democrats ran Adlai Stephenson (gov of IL, an intellectual)
made military focus of campaign issues- eliminate the draft, and ban nuclear
testing in the atmosphere (we end up doing both) But Ike is popular, and wins by
a landslide 2x
• Ike is fairly moderate as a politician, VP Richard Nixon is known for strong anticommunism, and faintly shady campaigning (Checkers speech).
Presidential Rankings: C-Span Survey, 2009
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Abraham Lincoln
Franklin Roosevelt
George Washington
Theodore Roosevelt
Harry Truman
John Kennedy
Thomas Jefferson
Dwight Eisenhower
Woodrow Wilson
Ronald Reagan
Lyndon Johnson
James Polk
Andrew Jackson
James Monroe
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Bill Clinton
William McKinley
John Adams
George H.W. Bush
John Quincy Adams
James Madison
Grover Cleveland
Gerald Ford
Ulysses Grant
William Taft
Jimmy Carter
Calvin Coolidge
Richard Nixon
James Garfield
29. Zachary Taylor
30. Benjamin Harrison
31. Martin Van Buren
32. Chester Arthur
33. Rutherford Hayes
34. Herbert Hoover
35. John Tyler
36. George W. Bush
37. Millard Fillmore
38. Warren Harding
39. William Harrison
40. Franklin Pierce
41. Andrew Johnson
42. James Buchanan
Modern Republicanism
• Eisenhower described his policy as “conservative when it comes
to $$ and liberal when it comes to people”. Wanted to balance the
budget- or at least get it closer…. (hadn’t been done since 20s)
Sometimes called Dynamic conservatism – he called it Modern
Republicanism. Wanted to sever the party from mistakes of 20s.
• Cut budgets, but kept many New Deal programs (social security,
farm subsidies) Raised federal minimum wage, built more low
income housing.
• Most important long term contribution federal funding for an
interstate highway system- begun in 1946, would eventually
complete 42,500 miles of roads
The Social Contract
• New Deal had strengthened unions, but while
Republicans held congress in 1946 they passed the
Taft- Hartley Act to curb the power of unions. Truman
vetoed- overridden
• AFL and CIO merged in 1955 into an organization
representing 35% of workers. Signed long term
agreements that left many decisions to management,
and to prevent “wildcat” strikes. In return, corporations
stopped trying to eliminate unions, and made pensions,
health insurance, and automatic pay adjustments
common.
• Union workers shared in prosperity of 50s – though
some businesses moved south where unions were
weaker
Massive Retaliation and Brinksmanship
• Ike is our 1st president since Grant to have legit military experienceand he was hesitant to send troops overseas. (actually reduced size of
army by ½) Sec of State, however, is John Foster Dulles- who took
policy of containment to the next level. Promised that any Soviet attack
would be met with “Massive Retaliation” – and that the US needs to
maintain a military capable of total devastation. But Ike likes a more
balanced budget- so Dulles says we can let allies handle the troopsand we should focus on missiles, we go from 1,000 warheads in 1953
to 18,000 in 1960.
• The trick is, we aren’t the only ones who can deliver destruction- and
any issue could be the one that “ends it all”. Both would go to the edge
(Brinksmanship) it’s chicken on a global scale
World Affairs During the Eisenhower
Administration
• Stalin died in 1953- New leader Nikita Krushchev seemed
more moderate (Secret speech) but you never know…. And
things tended to swing back and forth between looking better
and looking worse with relations between US and USSR
• Tensions heightened when Soviets launched Sputnik in 1957moving the nuclear threat beyond airplane to a Space Race
(1st time Russians have EVER had a technology 1st, and BOY
are they excited!) Scared gov’t – they started putting big $$
into STEM education, and Research and Development of new
technology
• As Decolonialization proceeded in “3rd World” there is
competition to “align” new nations- who often aren’t sure they
want to choose sides.
Hungarian Uprising
• 1956. Hungarian nationalists staged huge
demonstrations calling for democracy and
independence- hoping the US would step in and
help.
• Soviet tanks and soldiers moved in to CRUSHand US never showed up
(IKE didn’t want a world war over Hungary)
• Though it heightened tensions temporarily, actually
calmed Soviet fears, showed IKE was more
moderate than they might have thought.
Conflict in the Middle East
• US/USSR were more than willing to “jump in” if we felt our interests were
threatened- but if a country is clever, it could try to play both ends for
their own gain.
• 1956 Egypt is independent, but Britain still controls Suez canal. Pres.
Nasser asks for permission (and $$) to Dam the Nile for hydro power
and flood control. We agree- but around same time, Nasser recognizes
Communist China (which we have told people NOT to do)
• So we cut off the $$... And Nasser “nationalized” the Suez Canal- and
takes his case to the UN, which supports.
• Eisenhower Doctrine: Dulles says we will give $$ to any middle eastern
country fighting communism or Arab nationalism(biggest chunk goes to
Lebanon)
Iran
• Nationalist leader Mohammed Mossadegh overthrown
in a coup d’etat engineered by CIA in 1953. He had
been elected democratically (and legally) but we
worried about his “communist tendencies” after he
nationalized the oil industry and said he would give
share of profit to all citizens
• Installed Shah as leader- and he’s not a super friendly
dude when it comes to his citizens- but he promises us
to keep the oil flowing and cheap. This whole thing will
bit us in the Backside later on….
Summit Diplomacy
• Despite Brinksmanship of Dulles, Ike wanted to make sure
we had support for our actions- and created the ideas of
having period meeting of world leaders – allies and
adversaries, to talk about policy etc…
• 1st held in 1954: attended by US, Britain, France, Canada,
Australia and South Africa. Created International Atomic
Energy Agency (peaceful uses)
• 1955 Ike invited Khrushchev to meet in Geneva
Switzerland to talk about international conflict
• Important b/c we are setting precedent for talking before
we fight- going back to Congress of Vienna style 
U2 Incident
• A big setback….
• May 1960 a US spy plane was shot down
deep in soviet territory. The pilot, Gary
Powers, was captured.
• Eisenhower forced to admit he had
ordered missions- Khrushchev demanded
a public apology at Paris Summit of 1960Ike refuses, summit cancelled
Origins of Vietnam
• The French were trying to hold on to “Indochina” (which included Vietnam,
Laos and Cambodia) and the Vietnamese were fighting for freedom under
a nationalist leader named Ho Chi Minh….
• French are low on resources –so we start sending in $$, by 1954 we are
paying 4/5 cost of war, but Ike refuses to send troops, when the French
ask for them after defeat at Dien Bien Phu – but before the French leave
they install a new gov’t under a dictator- Ngo Dinh Diem
• Peace Conference divided the country North (Ho) and South (Ngo) and
said have elections to determine eventual leader. But communists would
win that election….
• US starts pouring $$ into South Vietnam to prop up dictator (again) – b/c
at least he’s not a communist…
Critics of Mass Society
• Conformity and consensus were the hallmarks of the 50s at
home- but there were occasional dissenting voices to be
heard. Some wondered if the celebration of affluence and
strength obscured the ways in which the US was still falling
short of the ideals of freedom (esp in Civil rights, we will come
right back to that)
• Organization man: Represents the shift in norms. Business is
bigger, and while more people are middle class- they are cogs in
a different kind of machine than the industrial workers of the past.
• “Tyranny of the Majority”/ The Lonely Crowd. people are
“hostages to prevailing opinion”. People evaluate their lives not by
how they feel about themselves, but by how others perceive
them. Criticizes American thinking as based on conformity and
mass media rather than making our own choices
Rebels without a Cause
• Thanks to the baby boom- by the end of the 50s, a
significant % of society is entering their teen yearsand while the clean cut stereotype of poodle skirts and
sock hops represented the majority of teens- there was
dissent in youth as well (which would explode in the
60s)
• JD Salinger ‘s Catcher in the Rye (1951) and Films like
Rebel without a Cause (1955) highlighted the
alienation some teens felt from expectations of societyand spurred a panic about “Juvenile Delinquency”
• And then there is Rock and Roll being born…. (though
it is still pretty darn clean in the 50s- Elvis was as
“racy” as things got)
The Beat Generation
• Not everyone was willing to fall into the crowd.
A precursor to the rebellion of the 60s was
already underground- a groups of artists and
intellectuals centered in NYC
• Took name from “Beatitude” a state of Zen,
but more commonly called “Beatniks” as a
derogatory term, describing their “alternative“
lifestyles (associated with rise of rock etc…)
• Nonconformists- disliked the pressures of
middle class stereotypes and expectations
• Alan Ginsberg (Howl), Jack Kerouac (on the
road)
The Freedom Movement
A Segregated Landscape
• 1950s America was a segregated, unequal society. ½ of Black
families lived in poverty. European ethnic groups mixed in the
suburbs- but minorities did not. 90%of all suburbs had less
than 1% non-white population. While discrimination in home
sales was illegal….it happened….a lot. (Raisin in the Sun)
• In the south- evidence of inequality was everywhere- in the
entrances, train cars, drinking fountains etc.
• Even Black “celebrities” had to use separate facitilites –
Sammy Davis Jr was famous in Las Vegas, but couldn’t
stay at any hotel in town.
Civil Rights Movement
• 14th Amendment had guaranteed African Americans civil rights- but
Plessy v Ferguson had interpreted it very narrowly (sep but equal) and
kept the focus on “Separate”, example: schools. 40% of American
students studied in legally segregated schools in 17 states, and many
others allowed it to be a local decision.
• NAACP spent 30s chipping away at discrimination through court casesbegan to have success- Sweatt v Painter (1950) ruled that University of
Texas was discriminatory b/c black law students weren’t allowed to
attend classes in the same building with white students
• 1953 Ike appointed Earl Warren chief Justice of Supreme Court- and
he would play a key role in Civil Rights
Brown vs. Board of Ed 1954
• Schools in Topeka KA were segregated. Linda Brown
(age 8) prevented from enrolling in her neighborhood
school- saying that she was required to attend the
“black school” on the other side of town.
• NAACP (through Browns and 5 other families in 4
states) sued with the argument (By Thurgood Marshallwho will eventually be a justice as well) that separate
was by its nature NOT equal, it instills a sense of
inferiority, and court agreed, and said segregation was
unconstitutional
• Class action suit- so verdict applies not only in Topeka,
but in other states as well, and signals a seminal shift in
gov’t policy
The Montgomery Bus Boycott
The Daybreak of Freedom
• A decision like Brown sets Precedent. If it is illegal
to segregate schools, what about other public
facilities? Parks, theaters, libraries etc…?
• 1955 Rosa Parks refuses to give up her seat on a
segregated bus - and a movement is born. Hundreds of
blacks refused to ride until given equal treatment. For 381
days they walked.And they won- November 1956 Court
ruled segregation on public transportation illegal
• Turning point – showed effedtiveness of non violent non
cooperation, which helped them gain support. And led to the
emergence of Martin Luther King
The Leadership of King
• A minister in Montgomery AL, inspired by Thoreau and
Gandhi, advocated Civil Disobedience. King invited
others (specifically ministers) work with him in the
Southern Christian Leadership Conference and CORE. A
truly great speaker- he called for justice and forgiveness
towards those who tried to “deny us our freedom”.
• Death threats followed “If I die tomorrow I would die
happy because I’ve been to the mountain top and I’ve
seen the promised land, and it is going to be here in
Montgomery.” Used language of Freedom to argue for
black rights –stressing their devotion to the nation and
desire to be a part of it.
Eisenhower and Civil Rights
• Eisenhower did not oppose white southern groups
upset by Brown decision. They formed citizen groups
to use econ coercion rather than physical violence
Southern Manifesto: 101 southern congressmen
signed a protest of Brown decision as “an abuse of
Judicial Power” and states refused to comply, not
1 southern state integrated in 1956
• Eisenhower might not have felt strongly about Civil Rights, but he did
feel strongly about the law…. And the 14th /15th Amendment was law.
Created a Commission to investigate discrimination and why Blacks
didn’t vote. Lacked Teeth, but a step towards later legislation
Crisis in Little Rock Arkansas
• Federal Court ordered the integration of the Central HS in Little Rock Arkansas (9
black students were to be allowed to attend) Gov Fabus called up National Guard
(who actually serve at the discretion of the Governor of any state) to PREVENT
integration.
• Eisenhower VERY offended that Gov was circumventing a federal court, sent in
1000 troops, and nationalized the Guard to take them from the governor. Gov
Fabus himself went to the school to block the entrance with state troopers, but was
forced to back down
• Sends a clear message- president will back the law. Gov Fabus closes schools for
months rather than allow integration, but eventually it happens, and other states
begin to follow suit
The Election of 1960
• One of the tightest races in American History. VP Richard
Nixon vs a relatively unknown senator from Massachusetts,
who was a Catholic (gasp) with a rich and controversial father.
• Televised Debates key in the election. Interesting, those who
heard on radio gave edge to Nixon- but on TV he looked
nervous and sweaty.
• Both Kennedy and Nixon were ardent cold warriors- pointing
out Sputnik and Soviet development of ICBMs as proof we
needed to ramp up efforts rather than calm down. ….
End of the 1950s
• As Ike left office, he gave a farewell address that harkened back to George
Washington’s – warning us that the “military industrial complex” could lead the US
where we didn’t necessarily want to go.
• By the end of the 50s, problems that had always been under the surface of
conformity were starting to break through
– Environmental issues: Leaded gas, Chlorofluorocarbons, pesticides etc (most
of that will hit in 70s)
– Civil Rights is getting more vocal, and militant
– Women’s rights
– Protests from those unhappy with mass society
• We were heading into our most turbulent decade- the 1960s.