Manifest Destiny
Library of Congress
In the 1850s trains were leaving Washington for the West twice daily.
Expansion westward seemed perfectly natural to many Americans in the mid-nineteenth century. Like
the Massachusetts Puritans who hoped to build a "city upon a hill, "courageous pioneers believed that
America had a divine obligation to stretch the boundaries of their noble republic to the Pacific Ocean.
Independence had been won in the Revolution and reaffirmed in the War of 1812. The spirit of
nationalism that swept the nation in the next two decades demanded more territory. The "every man
is equal" mentality of the Jacksonian Era fueled this optimism. Now, with territory up to the Mississippi
River claimed and settled and the Louisiana Purchase explored, Americans headed west in droves.
Newspaper editorJOHN O'SULLIVAN coined the term "MANIFEST DESTINY" in 1845 to describe the essence
of this mindset.
A symbol of Manifest Destiny, the figure "Columbia" moves across the land in advance of settlers, replacing
darkness with light and ignorance with civilization.
The religious fervor spawned by the Second Great Awakening created another incentive for the drive
west. Indeed, many settlers believed that God himself blessed the growth of the American nation. The
Native Americans were considered heathens. By Christianizing the tribes, American missionaries
believed they could save souls and they became among the first to cross the Mississippi River.
Economic motives were paramount for others. The fur trade had been dominated by European trading
companies since colonial times. German immigrant John Jacob Astor was one of the first American
entrepreneurs to challenge the Europeans. He became a millionaire in the process. The desire for
more land brought aspiring homesteaders to the frontier. When gold was discovered in California in
1848, the number of migrants increased even more.
At the heart of manifest destiny was the pervasive belief in American cultural and racial superiority.
Native Americans had long been perceived as inferior, and efforts to "civilize" them had been
widespread since the days of John Smith and
MILES STANDISH .
The Hispanics who ruled Texas and the
lucrative ports of California were also seen as "backward."
In 1840, the entire southwestern corner of the United States was controlled by foreign powers (shown in orange),
and the territorial dispute over the Oregon Territory (light green) had not been settled. By 1850 the U.S. had
control of lands from the Atlantic to the Pacific, covering almost all of today's continental United States.
Expanding the boundaries of the United States was in many ways a cultural war as well. The desire of
southerners to find more lands suitable for cotton cultivation would eventually spread slavery to these
regions. North of the Mason-Dixon line, many citizens were deeply concerned about adding any more
slave states. Manifest destiny touched on issues of religion, money, race, patriotism, and morality.
These clashed in the 1840s as a truly great drama of regional conflict began to unfold.
54° 40' or Fight
The West
Map showing the Oregon Trail, Oregon Country, and northern Mexico
The southern boundary of the United States with Mexico was not the only western territory under
dispute. The
OREGON TERRITORY
spanned the modern states of Oregon, Idaho, and Washington, as well
as the western coast of Canada up to the border of
RUSSIAN ALASKA.
Both Great Britain and America
claimed the territory. TheTREATY OF 1818 called for joint occupation of Oregon — a solution that was
only temporary. Led by missionaries, American settlers began to outnumber British settlers by the late
1830s. But Britain was not Mexico. Its powerful navy was still the largest in the world. Twice before
had Americans taken up arms against their former colonizers at great expense to each side. Prudence
would suggest a negotiated settlement, but the spirit of manifest destiny dominated American
thought. Yet another great showdown loomed.
Wagon tracks leftover from the Oregon Trail pioneers still crisscross the American midwest.
Oregon fever swept the nation in the 1840s. Thousands of settlers, lured by the lush
VALLEY
WILLAMETTE
headed west on theOREGON TRAIL. Families in caravans of 20 or 30 braved the elements to
reach the distant land. Poor eastern families could not generally make the trip, as outfitting such an
expedition was quite expensive. The CONESTOGA WAGON, oxen and supplies comprised most of the
cost. The families fought Native Americans at times, but often they received guidance from the
western tribes. It took six months of travel at the speed of fifteen miles per day to reach their
destination.
Friday, May 6th — Pleasant. We have just passed the
Mormon graveyard. There is a great number of graves
on it. The road is covered with wagons and cattle. Here
we passed a train of wagons on their way back, the
head man had drowned a few days before, in a river
called Elkhorn, while getting some cattle across, and
his wife was lying in the wagon quite sick, and children
were mourning for a father gone. With sadness and pity
I passed those who perhaps a few days before had
been well and happy as ourselves. Came 20 miles
today.
Excerpt from Diary of Mrs. Amelia Stewart Knight, 1853
Oregon Territory
Should the U.S. have compromised and divided the Oregon Territory with Great Britain at the 49th parallel?
Yes
No
Vote!
In the east, the subject of Oregon was less personal and more political. In 1844 the Democrats
nominatedJAMES K. POLK, an unknown candidate from Tennessee. It appeared as though the Whig
Party candidate, Henry Clay, would win in a landslide. Very few Americans had ever heard the name
Polk, but Clay's illustrious career was widely known. However, Polk was an excellent strategist. He
tapped into the public mood and realized that manifest destiny was the very issue that could lead him
to victory. Polk called for expansion that included Texas, California, and the entire Oregon territory.
The northern boundary of Oregon was the latitude line of 54 degrees, 40 minutes. "FIFTY-FOUR FORTY
OR FIGHT!"
was the popular slogan that led Polk to victory against all odds.
John Mix Stanley
Oregon City, along the banks of the Willamette River, the final stop along the Oregon Trail as it appeared in 1848.
Claiming the territory in an election campaign was one thing. Acquiring it from the powerful British
was another. Although Polk blustered about obtaining the entire territory from Britain, he was secretly
willing to compromise. Trouble was brewing with Mexico in the south. Surely the new nation could ill
afford to fight Mexico in the southwest and the British in the northwest simultaneously. Nevertheless,
Polk boldly declared to Great Britain that joint occupation would end within one year. The British were
confident they could win, but by 1846 they were vastly outnumbered in Oregon by a margin of greater
than six to one. In June of that year, Britain proposed splitting Oregon at the 49th parallel. Polk
agreed to the compromise, and conflict was avoided.
The Lone Star Republic
Chamber of Commerce, Huntsville, TX
Sam Houston, President of the Republic of Texas
At the time Spain granted independence to Mexico in 1821, the land now comprising the state of
Texas was very sparsely populated. The Mexican government actually encouraged the settlement of
the area by American pioneers.
In 1823,
STEPHEN AUSTIN
led 300 American families onto land granted to his father by the Mexican
government. A prosperous province was greatly in the interest of Mexico, so no alarm was raised.
Mexico was also interested in creating a buffer zone between the Mexican heartland and the
COMANCHE
TRIBE.
There were, however, strings attached.
The American settlers were expected to become Mexican. All immigrants from the United States were
by law forced to become Catholic. When the Mexican government outlawed slavery in 1829, it
expected the Texans to follow suit. None of the conditions were met, and a great cultural war was
underway.
Today the Alamo is also known as the "Shrine of Texas Liberty."
In the hopes of easing tensions, Stephen Austin journeyed to Mexico City in 1833. But Mexico's
dictator,
SANTA ANNA,
was not the negotiating type. Austin was simply thrown in jail. Although he was
released after 18 months, relations between the Texans and the Mexicans deteriorated. Finally in
1835, war broke out between Santa Anna's troops and a ragtag group of Texan revolutionaries. On
March 2, 1836, representatives from Texas formally declared their independence. Four days later,
Santa Anna completed an infamous siege on the
ALAMO
mission.
Despite a 13-day holdout, the 187 Texans were crushed by Santa Anna's forces, which numbered
5000 strong. The deaths of commander
WILLIAM TRAVIS, JIM BOWIE,
and
DAVY CROCKETT
angered
Americans as cries of "REMEMBER THE ALAMO!" rang throughout the land. Americans flocked to Texas,
and, led by commander
SAM HOUSTON,
defeated Santa Anna's forces. On May 14, 1836, Santa Anna
grudgingly recognized Texan independence.
On March 1, 1836, while the Battle of the Alamo raged miles away, 59 men signed Texas's Declaration of
Independence.
Texan-Americans were not the only ones fighting for independence. The
speaking settlers of Texas, also supported the
TEXAS REVOLUTION.
TEJANO
people, Spanish-
They had hoped for greater control
over their local affairs. They fought side-by-side with Houston's troops against Santa Anna's soldiers.
After the war, there was quite a bit of disillusionment. The Americans who swarmed into Texas did not
distinguish between Tejanos and Mexicans. In the decade that followed, the Tejanos found themselves
shut out of the new Texas government as well.
Most
TEXAN-AMERICANS
wanted to be annexed by the United States. They feared that the Mexican
government might soon try to recapture their land. Many had originally come from the American south
and had great interest in becoming a southern state. President Andrew Jackson saw trouble. Many
Whigs and Abolitionists in the North refused to admit another slave state to the Union. Rather than
risk tearing the nation apart over this controversial issue, Jackson did not pursue annexation. The
Lone Star flag flew proudly over theLONE STAR REPUBLIC for nine years.
Texas was an independent country.
The Mexican-American War
General Winfield Scott's entrance into Mexico City, September 14, 1847, is depicted in this print by Carl Nebel
When war broke out against Mexico in May 1846, the United States Army numbered a mere 8,000,
but soon 60,000 volunteers joined their ranks. The
AMERICAN NAVYdominated
the sea. The American
government provided stable, capable leadership. The economy of the expanding United States far
surpassed that of the fledgling Mexican state. Morale was on the American side. The war was a rout.
Polk directed the war from Washington, D.C. He sent a 4-prong attack into the Mexican
heartland.
of
JOHN FREMONT
CALIFORNIA
and
and
STEPHEN KEARNY
NEW MEXICO.
were sent to control the coveted lands
Fremont led a group of zealous Californians to declare independence
even before word of hostilities reached the West. The "BEAR FLAG REPUBLIC" was not taken seriously,
but Fremont and his followers did march to Monterey to capture the MexicanPRESIDIO, or fort. By
1847, California was secure.
The original Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was printed in two columns, the English translation on the left and the
Spanish on the right.
Meanwhile, Kearny led his troops into Santa Fe in August of 1846 causing the governor of New Mexico
to flee. The city was captured without a single casualty. Soon he marched his army westward across
the desert to join Fremont in California.
The attack on Mexico proper was left to two other commanders. Zachary Taylor crossed the Rio
Grande with his troops upon Polk's order. He fought Santa Anna's troops successfully on his advance
toward the heart of Mexico.
WINFIELD SCOTT
delivered the knockout punch. After invading Mexico at
Vera Cruz, Scott's troops marched to the capital, Mexico City. All that remained was negotiating the
terms of peace.
At home, the Whigs of the north complained bitterly about the war. Many questioned Polk's methods
as misleading and unconstitutional. Abolitionists rightly feared that southerners would try to use newly
acquired lands to expand slavery. Antiwar sentiment emerged in New England much as it had in the
War of 1812. Writer Henry David Thoreau was sentenced to prison for refusing to pay the taxes he
knew were used to fund the war effort. His essay, Civil Disobedience, became a standard of peaceful
resistance for future activists.
The MEXICAN-AMERICAN WAR was formally concluded by the TREATY OF GUADALUPE-HIDALGO. The United
States received the disputed Texan territory, as well as NEW MEXICO territory and CALIFORNIA. The
Mexican government was paid $15 million — the same sum issued to France for the Louisiana
Territory. The United States Army won a grand victory. Although suffering 13,000 killed, the military
won every engagement of the war. Mexico was stripped of half of its territory and was not consoled by
the monetary settlement.