By Loren Miller
The Two Party System
• The Constitution is silent about political
parties and about such important party
matters as conventions and primaries.
– Because political parties were known in 1787,
the Founding Fathers’ omission was probably
deliberate.
– In Washington’s Farewell Address, he
expressed the attitude of many of the Founding
Fathers when he warned against the “baneful
effects of the spirit of party.”
The Two Party System
• It is also probable that some members of
the Philadelphia convention realized the
inevitability of political parties in American
government.
– James Madison in Federalist #10 wrote that
different interests “grow up of necessity in
civilized nations, and divide them into different
classes, actuated by different sentiments and
views.”
The Development of the Two
Party System
• Whatever the thoughts and wishes of the men
in Philadelphia, by the beginning of
Washington’s second administration, two
political parties were already operating.
– Factional disputes within Washington’s Cabinet
between Hamilton and Jefferson led to Jefferson’s
resignation from the Cabinet and the development
of the Republican Party (this is what the
Jeffersonians called themselves)
• Jeffersonians primarily small property owners and farmers
• Federalists primarily an elite group of men of wealth
The Development of the Two
Party System
• The objective of a political party is to gain
control of government by winning elections.
Responsible Party Model: parties campaign on
coherent ideological platforms
Big Tent Model: parties try to appeal to the
broadest range of potential voters
The Development of the Two
Party System
• The United States has always had a two-party
system because we have only one winner per
election (single member constituency)
– While there are minor parties around, they
rarely last very long because they don’t win
elections
– Major parties make it very difficult for minor
parties to get on the ballot.
The Development of the Two
Party System
• In Texas, for a minor party to get on the ballot
they must obtain almost 50,000 valid
signatures within 75 days (by June 29) of the
Democratic and Republican primaries.
• In Texas, for an independent candidate to get
on the ballot requires more than 80,000 valid
signatures within 60 days of the Democratic
and Republican primaries.
Why We Have a Two-Party System
Election Results:
Party A
Party B
Party C
Party D
40%
30%
20%
10%
Party A wins as they have the most votes
Party D, which received only 10% of the votes tries to make a deal
with one of the other three parties. You incorporate some of my ideas
and I’ll throw my support to you. Also, how difficult would it be for Party D
to raise funds knowing that it is unlikely to win.
So Party D merges and most support Party B, but some support Party C
Why We Have a Two-Party System
Election Results:
Party A
Party B
Party C
40%
38%
22%
Party A wins as they have the most votes
Party C, which received only 22% of the votes tries to make a deal
with one of the other three parties. You incorporate some of my ideas
and I’ll throw my support to you. Also, how difficult would it be for Party C
to raise funds knowing that it is unlikely to win.
So Party C merges and most support Party B, but some support Party A
And we end up with two major broad based parties
Why Political Parties?
• Political parties provide for popular control of
government.
– To gain control of government requires politicians
to compete for the votes of the people.
• No longer are claims to power based on birth, family,
religion or class
– A candidate is required to establish broad political
support within the party.
Why Political Parties?
• Parties reconcile competing interests.
– Most public policies reflect major compromises
among competing blocs and interests.
– To win, parties must develop programs and policies
that appeal to many groups and voting blocs.
• Parties develop issues and educate the public
– During election time, parties focus on issues and
sharpen the differences between the contending
sides.
– They educate the public while seeking to influence
it.
Why Political Parties?
• Parties recruit political talent
– During the late 19th and early 20th centuries,
persons interested in a political career had to work
within the party structure waiting for a nod from
party leaders before seeking office
– Nominations were made by the caucus-convention
system that, as a rule, were under the tight control
of the leaders.
• With the development of primary elections the
recruitment process changed. Now candidates
may jump in without serving an
“apprenticeship.”
Political Parties
• American political parties exist on four levels:
–
–
–
–
National
State
County
Precinct
• A political party is loosely organized with
power diffused among the different levels.
– State and local party organizations are free to
decide their positions on party issues
Political Party Structure in
Texas
• The Democratic and Republican Parties have
both national and state party structures.
• As mandated by the Texas Election Code,
Texas’s two major parties are alike in
structure.
– A “major party” is one that received at least 20% of
the vote in the last election for governor
– Each has permanent and temporary organizational
structures
Political Party Structure in
Texas
• Major political parties are required to select
their candidates by primary elections.
• Minor political parties (between 2% and 20% of
the vote) can select their nominees either by
convention or by primary elections.
• If a party’s nominee for governor receives less
than 2% of the vote, they are required to
nominate candidates by the convention
method.
Temporary Party Organization
• The temporary party organization of each
party assemble for a few hours or days in
general election years (even numbered years)
to allow party supporters a chance to
participate in the party’s decision-making
process.
– Primaries
– Conventions
• Precinct, County or District, and State
Party Primaries
• Primaries have been a part of Texas elections
since the Terrell Election Law in 1912
mandated that major political parties use
primaries to select their nominees.
– Prior to 1912, parties were free to make their
nominations however they pleased, with nominees
usually being chosen by nominating conventions
composed of party leaders.
– Progressives promoted primaries as a means of
expanding political participation to the masses.
Party Primaries
• Primaries require separate voting booths for
each party in every precinct in the state.
– Minor parties use conventions to nominate
candidates as they are much less expensive than
primaries
• Party primaries are usually held the first
Tuesday in March
– Texas uses a closed primary system
–.
Party Primaries
• To win a party primary in Texas, a candidate
must receive a majority of the votes.
– This is because of the state’s one party history
– “Raiding”
– Parties may also include nonbinding referendum
items (casino gambling, status of illegal
immigrants, public prayer, etc.)
• If no candidate receives a majority, then a
runoff is required one month later.
– Added expense
– Very low voter turnout especially during nonpresidential election years
Precinct Convention
• On the evening of the March primary after the
polls have closed, Texans who voted earlier in
the day may attend precinct conventions,
usually in the same location as the polling
place.
– A person who votes in one party’s primary may not
attend the convention of the other party
– In presidential election years the turnout is much
higher than during the “off years.”
• Typically less than 4% of those who voted in the primary
• This makes it possible for a determined minority to gain
control and dominate
Precinct Convention
• Agenda:
– Adopt resolutions to be passed on to the county or
senatorial district convention
– Select delegates to the county or senatorial district
convention
County or District Convention
• In the week following the precinct convention,
delegates selected at those conventions meet
at the county or senatorial district level.
• Agenda:
– Adopt resolutions to be considered at the state
convention
– Select delegates and alternates to the state
convention
State Convention
• Both the Democrats and the Republicans hold
their state conventions in June.
• Agenda: (non-presidential year)
– Elect state party officers
– Elect 62 members to the state executive committee
• Two from each senatorial district
• This committee selects a chair and a vice-chair
– Adopt a party platform
– Certify to the Secretary of State the candidates
nominated by their party
State Convention
• Agenda: (presidential year)
– Elect state party officers
– Elect 62 members to the state executive committee
• Two from each senatorial district
• This committee selects a chair and a vice-chair
– Adopt a party platform
– Certify to the Secretary of State the candidates
nominated by their party
– Elect Texas delegates and alternates to the national
convention
– Select electoral college candidates
Permanent Party Organization
• The permanent structure of the party consist
of people selected to lead the party
organization and provide continuity between
election cycles.
–
–
–
–
–
Precinct Chair
County Chair
County Executive Committee
State Executive Committee
State Chair and Vice Chair
Precinct Chair
• The precinct chair is the jumping off point for
political involvement.
– The precinct chair is elected by the voters in the
primary election
• They serve a two-year term and there is no limit to the
number of terms they may serve
– The precinct chair is the point of contact between
the party and the people who support it.
– A precinct chair does as little or as much as they
want to do.
• Usually responsible for holding the primary in their
precinct and presiding over the precinct convention.
• Some promote the party by helping with voter registration,
mailing out newsletters, arranging transportation to the
polls and soliciting campaign contributions.
County Chair
• The county chair is elected by the voters in
the primary election and serves a two-year
term.
– Presides over the county executive committee
which is composed of all precinct chairs in the
county.
• Acceptance of candidates on the primary ballot, printing of
ballots and renting the voting machines is their
responsibility.
• They certify the names of the party’s nominees to the
secretary of state’s office.
County Executive Committee
• The county executive committee:
– Assembles the temporary roll of delegates to the
county convention.
– Canvasses the returns from the primary for local
offices and helps the county chair prepare the
primary ballot.
– Accepts filing fees and conducts a drawing to
determine the order of the candidates on the
primary ballot.
State Executive Committee
• A the state convention delegates choose one
man and one woman from each of the 31
senatorial districts to serve on the state
executive committee.
• They also select a chair and a vice chair (one
man and one woman)
State Executive Committee
• Responsibilities Include:
–
–
–
–
Determining the site of the next state convention
Canvassing statewide primary returns
Certifying the nomination of party candidates
Produce and distribute press releases and other
publicity
– Fund raising and coordinating special projects
• These responsibilities have necessitated the
hiring of full time staff.
Temporary Party Organization
State Convention
Permanent Party Organization
State Chair and
Vice Chair
Elects
Elects Delegates to
County or District
Convention
State Executive
Committee
Elects Delegates to
County Executive
Committee
Precinct Convention
May Attend
Primary Voters
County Chair
Elect
Precinct Chair
Elect
Early Politics (1845-1873)
• No political parties came into existence during
the brief period of the Texas Republic.
– Political factions tended to coalesce around
personalities (pro or anti Sam Houston)
• This situation continued for a few years after
statehood, although continual efforts were
made to organize the Democratic and Whig
parties.
Early Politics (1845-1873)
• By the 1850s, the Democrats were firmly
entrenched in Texas.
– The Democrats were still split based on
personalities.
• Pro Sam Houston forces began calling themselves
Jacksonian Democrats (Unionists)
• Anti Sam Houston faction began calling themselves the
Calhoun Democrats
– In the first three presidential elections after
annexation there was considerable Whig votes, but
they did not approach those of the Democrats.
Early Politics (1845-1873)
• As the Civil War approached, the Democratic
Party became split into Unionists and states’
rights factions.
• In the course of the Civil War, Texas politics
became firmly aligned with the Democratic
Party.
Early Politics (1845-1873)
• During the period of Reconstruction (18651873), the Republican Party controlled Texas
politics.
– The Reconstruction acts passed by the U.S.
Congress purged all officeholders with a
Confederate past.
– Congress also disenfranchised all Southerners who
had even held a state or federal office before
secession and who later supported the
Confederacy.
Early Politics (1845-1873)
• In 1869, Republican Governor E.J. Davis’
administration quickly became unpopular with
Texas’s Anglo majority.
– He took control of voter registration
– He appointed more than 8,000 public officials
– His administration was noted for graft, corruption
and high taxes
• His administration ushered in almost 100
years of Democratic control
Agrarian Politics (1875-1900)
• A very difficult time for Texans:
–
–
–
–
Aftermath of Reconstruction
Two depressions
The growing pains of a pioneer state
The beginnings of industrialization
• The Democratic Party was the dominant party
but it had to contend with sizable Republican
votes in Presidential elections and with
formidable competition at the state and local
levels from the Greenback and Populist
Parties (farmer’s discontent)
Agrarian Politics (1875-1900)
• After 1884, the Greenback Party disappeared
in Texas, but agricultural discontent continued
and produced the larger Populist Party.
• The Republican Party survived during this
period, partly dominated by Blacks. It polled
large presidential votes but was of little
consequence in state politics.
Agrarian Politics (1875-1900)
• In the early 1890s, the Democrats, under the
leadership of James Hogg, introduced some
notable reforms.
– He regained over a million acres of land illegally
obtained by the railroads
– He drove many insurance companies from the state
– He sponsored anti-trust and railroad commission
measures and a number of other regulatory
measures
• The return of prosperity in 1897 coupled with
the Democratic reforms ended the Populist
Party in Texas.
One Party Dominant (1900-1970)
• The turn of the century ushered in a new
period of Texas politics, characterized by the
complete dominance of the Democratic Party.
– Having adopted Populist issues, Democratic
candidates faced no opposition from Populist
candidates.
– Prosperity had returned and was destined to
continue until the Depression of the late 1920s.
– The Republican vote dwindled noticeably after
1900.
– Texans became used to conducting their politics
within the shell of a single party and the primary
became the election.
One Party Dominant (1900-1970)
• Two factions emerged within the Democratic
Party: conservatives and liberals.
– Fighting between these two factions was often as
fierce as between two separate political parties.
• In 1923, R. B. Creager of Brownsville, won the
post of Republican national committeeman for
Texas and held it until his death in 1950.
– He used his position to dispense political
patronage whenever the Republicans held the
presidency (not often).
One Party Dominant (1900-1970)
• By the late 1940s, Republican presidential
candidates began enjoying greater support
from the Texas electorate.
– With the backing of conservative Democratic
governor Alan Shivers (Shivercrats/Texas
Regulars), Eisenhower carried the state in 1952 and
again in 1956.
• Alan Shivers was so popular with Republicans that he won
both the Republican and Democratic nominations for
governor in 1956 (cross filing)
• The Civil Rights Movement of the early 1960s precipitated
a change in Texas politics.
– Civil Rights Act of 1964
– Voting Rights Act of 1965
One Party Dominant (1900-1970)
• In 1960, Lyndon Johnson was on the ballot
both for Vice President and for reelection to
the Senate. When he became Vice President,
Texas held a special election to fill his Senate
seat.
– In an election with a very low voter turnout, John
Tower, a political science professor from
Midwestern University, became the first Republican
Senator from Texas since Reconstruction.
Emerging Two Party (1970-1990)
• In the late 1940s, a majority of conservative
Democrats began to support the Republican
ticket. However, at the state and local level,
the Democratic Party remained in control.
• By the 1970s, the Republican Party enjoyed
greater electoral support in Texas. No longer
was the winner of the Democratic primary
assured of victory in the November election.
Emerging Two Party (1970-1990)
• In 1978, Bill Clements became the first
Republican governor since Reconstruction.
• In the 1980s, Republican voters elected
growing numbers of candidates to the U.S.
Congress, the Texas legislature, and county
courthouse offices. The GOP began to
dominate local politics in suburban areas
around the state.
Emerging Two Party (1970-1990)
• In 1992, Bill Clinton became the first
Democratic president elected without carrying
Texas.
• By 1993, both Texas U.S. Senators were
Republican (Hutchison and Gramm).
• In 1994, George W. Bush defeated Ann
Richards for governor and Republicans won
six of the ten state races that year.
Republican Dominance (2000- )
• In 2000, Governor Bush ran for and was
elected President, easily carrying Texas. In
Texas, every Republican candidate for
statewide office also won.
• By 2004, the Republican Party had a majority
in both the Texas House and Texas Senate,
elected both U.S. Senators, all statewide
offices as well as a majority of
representatives in the U.S. House.
Party Composition
Republican Officeholders in Texas (2013)
U.S. Senate
U.S. House
Texas Senate
Texas House
Statewide Offices
State Board of Education
2 of 2
23 of 36
19 of 31
95 of 150
27 of 27
10 of 15
Partisanship in Texas, 1952-2012
1952
1972
1990
2002
2012
% Democrat
% Republican
Ind/Other
66
57
34
35
37
6
14
30
36
43
28
29
36
29
20
Political Ideology -- Texas (2013)
Extremely Liberal
Somewhat Liberal
Lean Liberal
In the Middle
Lean Conservative
Somewhat Conservative
Extremely Conservative
2%
6%
9%
40%
15%
20%
8%
Detailed Breakdown
Party Differences in Texas, 2012
Support for Methods to Increase Revenue
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Democrat
Republican
Independent
Party Differences in Texas, 2014
Legislative Priorities
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Democrat
Republican
Independent
Texas as a Model for Other States, 2013
60
50
Democrat
40
Republican
Independent
30
20
10
0
Strongly SomewhatSomewhat Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Disagree
Don't
Know