The Scientific Approach
• “Science” = from Latin “to know”
• Ways of asking & answering
questions
• Scientific thinking reduces emotional
reactions
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k2MhMsLn9B0&feature=related
(Holy Grail)
The Scientific Approach
• Max Weber = “Value-free sociology”
• Researchers not to allow personal
beliefs or biases to interfere:
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Religion
Racism
Sexism
Social class
• Science
• Bases knowledge on:
• Direct
• Systematic
• Observation
• Study of society based on
systematic observation of social
behavior
• Empirical Evidence
• Can verify with our senses
• Sight, hearing, touch, smell
Quantitative Research
Methods
• Numbers
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Objective
Deductive
Generalizable
Examples:
U.S. Census
GSS
Data File
Qualitative Research Methods
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Non-numerical data
Texts
Interviews
Photos
Recordings
Visual media (movies, TV)
Examples: Anne Frank’s Diary, Political
Speeches, TV shows
Examples of Qualitative Data
Sources
Text
Field Notes
Examples of Qualitative Data
Sources
Mural in Northern Ireland
Qualitative Research
• Characteristics:
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Systematic
Subjective
Analyze words or images
Inductive
Not generalizable
Steps of the Scientific Method
The Real World: An Introduction to Sociology, 2nd Edition
Copyright © 2010 W.W. Norton & Company
• Concept: Mental construct
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Deception
Love
Honesty
Happiness
• Variable: Concept which changes
Concepts and Variables
• Measurement
• Procedure to determine value of a
variable in a specific case
• Operationalize
• Stating exactly what is being
measured
Measurement
Example
• Concept
• Mental construct that represents some part
of the world (Deception)
• Variable
• Concept that changes from case to case
(Frequency of lying)
• Measurement
• Procedure for determining the value of a
variable in a specific case (How often…)
Example
• Operationalize
• Deception=Responses to questions about
frequency of various types of lies
• White lies
• Lies to protect partner
• Lies to protect self
• Lies that might end the relationship
Cause and Effect
• Scientists refer to the cause as the:
• Independent Variable
• And the effect as the
• Dependent Variable
• Understanding cause and effect is
valuable because it:
• Allows researchers to predict how one
pattern of behavior will produce another
Cause and Effect
Dependent & Independent
Variables (Example)
• Dependent Variable=Frequency of lying
• Range: Never (1) to All the time (7)
• Independent Variables:
• Love
• Trust
• Commitment
• Dependency
• Expressiveness
Correlation & Causation
• Correlation: A relationship between two
variables (they change together)
• Causation: A relationship where one
variable causes another variable to
change
• Spurious Correlations: Two variables
appear to be correlated, but relationship
caused by a third variable
Three Criteria for Causation
1. Correlation
• Positive (Ice cream consumption increases;
Crime
increases)
• Negative (SES increases; Infant mortality rate decreases)
2. Time Order
• Cause must occur before the Effect
• Independent variable  Dependent Variable
3. Other possible causes eliminated
• No spurious correlations
Spurious Correlation
Research Methods
How do we gather data?
• Several research methods
• Each has benefits & limitations
• Which method works best?
• Depends on your project
Ethnographic Methods
• Study people in their
environments
• To understand meanings
they give their activities
Ethnographic Methods
• Product research
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9tHgNX
zS2EY&feature=related
• Good qualitative researchers
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?NR=1&fea
ture=endscreen&v=jSdxYb2IVwg
Ethnographic Methods
• Ethnography usually has two steps:
Researcher:
1. Observes a social setting
2. Creates written account (field
notes) of observed activity
Ethnographic Methods
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In participant observation
Researcher both:
Observes and
Participates
• Fraternity
• AA
Interviews
• Interviews: Direct, face-to-face
contact with respondents
• Generate large amounts of data
• Researcher identifies target
population
• Selects sample of people to interview
Sampling
To acquire information about a
population--two basic Options:
1. Gather data from every member of
the population (a census)
2. Sample—Gather data from selected
members of the population
Populations and Samples
Know How the Sample was
Selected: The Hite Report
• 84% of respondents (women) are not
satisfied emotionally with their
relationships (with men)
• 95% report "emotional and psychological
harassment" from male partner
• 98% desire more communication from
partner
• Only 13% of women married more than
two years are still “in love” with husband
The Hite Report
• In 1972 a behavioral researcher, Shere
Hite, initiated a large-scale study of
female sexuality
• Sample size was 4,500 women
• Questionnaires distributed through
women's groups
• e.g., NOW, Ms. Magazine, and the Village
Voice, church groups, political organizations
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The Hite Report
• 100,000 surveys distributed
• 4,500 returned
• Response rate of Hite's survey
is 4.5 %
• Should have response rate of
70% to 80% to generalize to
population
Problems
• Survey--127 essay questions
• Motivation of respondents?
• What about the 95.5% who did
not respond?
• How did respondents differ from
non-respondent?
Interviews
• Open-ended:
• Respondents say as much as like
• What do you think about gay marriage?
• Closed-ended questions:
• Respondents choose answers
• “I support gay marriage” Yes or No
Surveys
• Questionnaires given to sample from
target population (Quantitative data)
• Survey research focus:
• Large-scale social patterns
• Political opinions
• Marriage & divorce
• Crime
• Analyzes data using statistics
Experimental Methods
• Experiments:
• Tests of specific variables and
effects
• Performed in controlled setting
• Laboratory
Experimental Methods
• Experimental & Control Groups
• Experimental group:
• Participants receive
treatment or intervention
Experimental Methods
Control group:
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Participants receive no intervention
Compare experimental &
control group results
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Did intervention have an
effect?
Experimental Design
Existing Sources
• Existing Sources:
• Data already collected by earlier
researchers:
• U.S. Census
• FBI Uniform Crime Report
• National Health Interview Study
• General Social Survey (GSS)
Content Analysis
Verbal print media - newspaper, magazines,
books, plays
Visual media - videos, television, film
Visual print media - drawings, cartoons
Artistic productions - painting, sculpture,
music
Personal documents - autobiographies,
letters, and diaries
Conducting Sociological
Research: Ethics
• Institutional Review Board (IRB)
• Group of scholars who review
colleagues’ research proposals
• Recommendations for protecting
human subjects from harm:
• Physical
• Psychological
For you: Evaluating Research
Findings
• Know source of data
• Find out how sample or
participants were selected
• Other possible limitations of
data and results