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• morals —a religious or philosophical code of behavior that may or may not be rational
• ethics —come from the ancient Greek study of the rational way of deciding what is good for individuals
 Ethics consist of the ways in which we make choices between competing moral principles.


• example: courage

• know what they are doing.
• select their action with a moral reason.
• act out of good character.

• Immanuel Kant (late eighteenth century):
 categorical imperative —asks people to consider what would be the result of everyone acting the same way they themselves wish to act
• John Stuart Mills:
 principle of utility —the greatest good for the greatest number
• John Rawls:
 veil of ignorance —justice emerges when we make decisions without considering the status of the people involved and without considering where we personally fall in the social system

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
• The press has a responsibility to give voice to the public and to society.
• The free press was not living up to that responsibility to the public because of its need to serve its commercial masters.

• The Hutchins Commission listed five requirements for a responsible press:
1. The media should provide a truthful, comprehensive, and intelligent account of the day’s events in a context that gives them meaning.
2. The media should serve as a forum for the exchange of comment and criticism (i.e., the press should present the full range of thought and criticism).
3. The media should project a representative picture of the constituent groups within the society.
4. The media should present and clarify the goals and values of the society.
5.
The media should provide full access to the day’s news.


• consult your conscience
• seek alternatives
• hold an imaginary ethical dialogue with everyone involved

• Truthfulness
 Bok’s two factors to consider when considering a lie:
• whether the speaker is intending to transmit the truth or attempting to deceive people
• whether the statement itself is true or false
 David Martinson —the press needs to report “the truth about the fact”

• Catching fabrications: how Stephen Glass fooled the fact checkers
 Stephen Glass wrote for the New Republic , Rolling
Stone , George , and Harper’s
 was caught fabricating an article in 1998:
• poor fact-checking
• submitted work late
• system designed to catch mistakes, not outright lies


• made up names and quotes

• didn’t attribute George Carlin jokes in his column
• made-up story of two boys in a hospital

• Who writes those advice column letters?
 YM —photo of an underage model used under the headline “I Got Trashed and Had Sex with Three
Guys
 editors combine comments from multiple letters
 Teen —admits combining letters for greater appeal
• Corporate conflict of interest:
 Pets.com sock puppet
 Washington Post , General Electric, and Microsoft
 Chicago Tribune and the Chicago Cubs have same corporate parent

• sensationalism —coverage of events that are lurid and highly emotional:
 example: Princess Diana’s death and funeral
• Time magazine’s best-selling issues of all time
• tabloid laundering or tabloidization —when respectable media report on what the tabloids are reporting:
 Columbia Journalism Review ’s cites reasons for this: o competition o the Internet

• There is no ‘They’—The Sago Mine Disaster
 Monday, January 2, 2006, mine explosion in West
Virginia
 governor’s statement proclaimed all of the miners were alive
 actually, twelve dead, one alive
 reasons for press jumping the gun:
• midnight filing deadlines
• comfort in using unconfirmed stories in light of the internet
• actual story didn’t match up to media’s need to find a miracle story

• Photography
 September 11 —Eric Meskauskas, director of photography for the New York Daily News prints disturbing image of man falling to his death from one of the twin towers
 balance of war photography o The Seattle Times — flag-draped coffins
 Kenny Irby: o How would a person react to this image over a bowl of Cheerios or a glass of orange juice?
o Does the photo show dead bodies?
o Does the photo show blood?
o Does the photo show people naked?
o What if my child saw this?

• Altering news pictures is a risky practice:
 1982 National Geographic cover “moving” one of the pyramids
 1994 Time’s cover of O. J. Simpson’s darkened mug shot
 June 2006, El Nuevo Herald
 Los Angeles Times Iraq war photo
 Spain train bombing scene

Enforcing Ethics:
• ombudsman —the reader’s representative or audience advocate:
 responsibilities:
• listening to the concerns of readers or audience members.
• writing a regular column or commentary.
• writing a regular memo for the news staff.
 New York Times hired two in 2003 after the Jayson
Blair scandal.

• The Society of Professional Journalists’ code of ethics:
1. Seek truth and report it as fully as possible.
2. Act independently.
3. Minimize harm.
 Jeffrey L. Seglin —why codes of ethics are ineffective:
 pressure from the parent company for profits
 nonenforcement

• Advertising:
 Advertising Council founded during World War II
 mission to prevent resource misuse, promote war bonds, morale
 responsible for “This is your brain on drugs” campaign
• Truth in advertising:
 ads for medicines held to higher standards
 role of the Federal Trade Commission:
• investigates consumer complaints

 Center for Science in the Public Interest:
• investigates what Federal Trade Commission does not
 The National Advertising Division of the Council of
Better Business Bureaus:
• also investigates false advertising
 Michael Dweck —claims of being “best” are dangerous
 truthful ads often most successful

Good Taste and Calvin Klein:
• History of controversial ads:
 In 1980, fifteen-year-old Brooke Shields ad —”Nothing comes between me and my Calvins”
 Mid-1990s campaign —showing kids in underwear
 1995 campaign reviewed by Justice Department
 Mark Crispin Miller:
• notes emphasis on shock value and the sheer omnipresence of advertising

• Advertising and Media Control:
 advertisers sometimes concerned about content
 boycott on their own or through consumer pressure
 magazine editors warn advertisers of content:
• simply keeping important advertisers informed
 1995 Ford and The New Yorker
 Esquire cancelled article for fear of losing Chrysler
 1996 Chrysler memo to 100 major magazines carrying Chrysler advertising:
• wants to preview content that encompasses sexual, political, social issues
• doesn’t want to appear next to editorials construed as provocative or offensive

• Advertisers’ influence on television
 Family Friendly Programming Forum:
• promotes the development of shows for the entire family
• isn’t boycotting or criticizing other, adult shows
• members control $11 billion worth of advertising
• first show funded— Gilmore Girls (2000)

Ethics in public relations:
• Public Relations Society of America (PRSA):
 established code of ethics to improve behavior and image
• Citizens for a Free Kuwait:
 Hill & Knowlton hired by members of Kuwaiti
Government
 Campaign designed to:
• create sympathy for Kuwait
• solidify opposition to Iraq and Saddam Hussein
• bolster support for American involvement in fighting Iraq
 Congressional Human Rights Caucus testimony

Whom do you serve: the client or the public?
• conflict between serving the client’s interests and serving those of the public
• PRSA Statement of Professional Values:
 advocacy
 honesty
 expertise
 independence
 loyalty
 fairness