The Spanish Empire
in the New World
Age of the Viceroys
and the Caste System
The age of the Viceroys – Spain’s control over Spanish America
lasted over 300 years, beginning in 1492. The mainland
territories of the empire in North and South America gained
independence during the first two decades of the 19th century,
while in the Caribbean, Cuba and Puerto Rico remained under
Spanish control until 1898.
Havana harbor
The Spanish possessions in the
Americas were extensive, from
Mexico (including the current
southwest of the U.S.), through
Central America, to South
America. Its territories were
much greater than the other major
colonial powers in the area
(England or Portugal).
Communication with Spain could
take up to several months.
Nevertheless, Spanish control
over its colonies was guaranteed
by three important institutions:
the Viceroy, the armed forces, and
the Catholic Church.
The Viceroy was the king’s representative in the New World (the
Spanish word is virrey, which means “in place of the king”). The
Viceroy governed a Viceroyalty. At the beginning of the colonial
period there were two viceroys, in Mexico and Perú. By the 18th
century, two more viceroys were appointed for South America (in
the regions of modern-day Colombia and Argentina).
Viceregal Government
Central Authority
King
Viceroy
Executive
Judicial
Military
Treasury
Regional and Local Levels
Church
Government Organization,
continued…

Regional Offices held
by Peninsulares
– Ex. Court of Appeals,
Diocese

Local Offices held by
Creoles
– Ex. Mayor, Parrish
Priests
Assisting the viceroys were the armed forces of Spain, the
army and the navy. While the Spanish armadas began to lose
their power in 17th and 18th centuries (challenged by the
powerful English Navy, and by pirates), the soldiers of the
viceroy were able to maintain control of Spanish territories
until the outbreak of the wars of independence after 1800.
A third main institution of the Spanish colonial period was the
Catholic Church. Its main goal was to insure the conversion of the
indigenous peoples to Christianity and the persecution of
“heretics” through the Inquisition. The Church, the armed forces,
and the Viceroy usually worked together closely to insure the
smooth operation of the empire.
Cathedral (Lima, left); above, a trial of
the Inquisition
The system of the encomienda was initially established by the
Spanish crown and enforced by the Viceroys. Under this system,
favored Spanish settlers were given large tracts of land and people to
work the fields, mines, and waters nearby. Although the government
attempted to abolish the encomienda system by the 18th century,
because of the abuse of the natives, some landowners continued to
control the lives of families living on their land.
Reenactment of Spanish Colonists
(New Mexico)
The Caste System
The Spanish colonial period was also marked by a rigid social
stratification. The most privileged class were the Spaniards, who
held the important government and church posts. The children of
the Spanish born in the New World were called creoles. While still
a privileged class, the creoles increasingly complained about
“newcomers” from Spain and more and more wanted to participate
in the governing of the Spanish state in the Americas.
Spanish colonists
of New Mexico
(reenactment)
Three main
divisions
1. Full Europeans
peninsulare or
creole
2. Half European/
Half Native
mestizo
3. Half European/
Half African
mulatto
Native, African, Half African/Half
Native
Mexico, Early 1800s
Peninsulares
10,000
Creoles
650,000
Mestizos
1,500,000
Mulattoes, Natives, Africans
2,500,000
Marriage
Spain: “Better marriage than
burning” –low percentage
of illegitimates
New Spain: “Better to live
with someone than be
alone”—high percentage of
illegitimates
The Castes as a Racial System
 Pigmentocracy
 Who
determined the caste?
People who fit into
mixed groups, were
well defined by a
“pigmentocracy” or a
stratification based on
the color of the skin
Artistic rendition of the
caste system
Castes as a Cultural System

Rights
 The Predominance of mestizos and mestizo
culture
The decadence of Spain in the 18th and 19th centuries – By 1800 the Spanish
empire in the Americas was ripe for change. Spain had increasingly come under
the influence of France; in 1808 Napoleon invaded Spain and installed his
brother (José I) as king (causing dissatisfaction in the Spanish colonies and war
in Spain). Moreover, both the American Revolution (1776) and the French
Revolution (1789) gave new hope especially to the creoles, who wanted to
govern their lands without the interference of Spain.
Family of King Charles
IV, 1800 ( Goya)