Simón José Antonio de la Santísma Trinidad Bolívar y Palacios
 OCCUPATION: Military Leader, Political Leader
 BIRTH DATE: July 24, 1783
 DEATH DATE: December 17, 1830
 PLACE OF BIRTH: Caracas, Venezuela
 PLACE OF DEATH: Santa Marta, Venezuela
 AKA: Simon Bolivar
Simón Bolívar was a South American soldier who was instrumental in the revolutions against the Spanish
empire. Born into a wealthy family in Venezuela, Bolivar was sent to Spain to complete his education, soon
deciding to immerse himself in the political sphere in Europe. After France invaded Spain in 1808, he became
involved in the resistance movement and, along with Jose de San Martin, played a key role in the Spanish
American fight for independence. In 1825, the "Republic of Bolivia”, was created after the inspirational leader,
hailed by many as El Liberator (The Liberator).
Profile
Simón José Antonio de la Santísma Trinidad Bolívar y Palacios was born on July 24, 1783 in Caracas, New
Granada (now Venezuela). Bolívar was born into a prosperous family, who took their money from rich gold and
copper mines they owned in Venezuela. Young Bolívar moved to Spain in 1799, after the deaths of his parents.
In Spain he continued his education, begun in Venezuela with tutors, and married María Teresa Rodríguez del
Toro y Alaysa in 1802. When the young couple returned to Venezuela to visit in 1803, however, María Teresa
sickened and died of yellow fever. For several years, after her death, Bólivar returned to Europe and kept
company with Napoleon. Bolívar returned to Venezuela in 1807 and when Napoleon named Joseph Bonaparte
King of Spain and its colonies, which included Venezuela, Bolívar joined the resistance movement. The
resistance group based in Caracas gained independence in 1810, and Bolívar traveled to Britain on a diplomatic
mission. The fight for control of Caracas, Venezuela, and most of South American continued on back home.
Finally, Bolívar returned to Venezuela and began a campaign to wrest control of that country from the Spanish.
He and his followers invaded Venezuela on May 14, 1813; this marked the beginning of his Compana
Admirable, (Admirable Campaign) which resulted in the formation of the Venezuelan Second Republic later
that year. Bolívar was hailed as El Libertador (The Liberator). 1821 saw the creation of the Gran Colombia,
under Bolívar’s leadership. This federation included much of what is now Venezuela, Colombia, Panama, and
Ecuador. Further maneuvers saw him named Dictator of Peru in 1824, followed by the creation of Bolivia in
1825.
Simón Bolívar had succeeded in uniting much of South America in a federation free from Spanish control, but
the government was fragile. Despite his desire to create a union of states similar to that which created the
United States of America, Bolívar faced opposition from internal factions throughout the huge Gran Colombia.
As a temporary measure, Bolívar declared himself dictator in 1828. He resigned this post in 1830 and made
plans to sail for exile in Europe. On December 17, 1830, however, Simón Bolívar died in Santa Marta,
Colombia, after a battle with tuberculosis.
Today, Simón Bolívar’s legacy can be seen in the multitude of statues and plaza squares bearing his likeness
throughout South and North America. Several cities and towns throughout the United States share his last name and
statues and roads bearing his name can be found everywhere from Egypt, Australia, and Turkey!
L’Ouverture, Toussaint
At one point in time, the island of Haiti was jointly owned by Spain and France, each claiming one half of the
island as its colony. The climate there proved ideal for the growing of sugar cane, and soon the white people
established large plantations. Originally, they utilized the forced labor of the natives. But these native peoples
were soon wiped out by the new diseases unintentionally brought by the French and Spanish. Thus, Africans
were imported to do the labor instead. But little was the world aware that this pattern of life in Haiti was soon to
change. Soon after the birth of a child named Toussaint L’Ouverture, Haiti’s future was forever altered.
Francois-Dominique Toussaint L’Ouverture was likely born on November 1, 1743, though this date has been
disputed. He was born into slavery on a plantation under the ownership of Count de Breda. Toussaint’s father,
an African named Gaou-Guinou and probably a member of the Arrada tribe, had been deported from his native
country and brought to the island of Haiti to labor as a slave on the lucrative sugar plantations of the white men.
Toussaint was the oldest the eight children—five of which were boys and three of which were girls. However,
in his formative years, Toussaint was allowed by the plantation overseer the rare privilege of learning to read
and write. He soon began reading everything available to him. Authors of these books included Plutarch,
Epictetus, Caesar, Saxe, and, especially influential in Toussaint’s life, Abbé Raynal. In addition, Toussaint was
raised in the beliefs of Roman Catholicism, the official religion of the island. Throughout the rest of his life, his
faith played an important role in shaping both his actions and his personality. Toussaint possessed an innate
skill for leadership, and this talent combined with his calm, but persistent, nature to create one of the greatest
leaders of all time. Compared to most other slaves in the region, Toussaint was well off, serving as a coachman
and house servant instead of toiling in the fields. Yet, good conditions or poor, he was still a slave, another
man’s property.
But later on, Toussaint’s life changed drastically. By the age of approximately 33 Toussaint had gained his
freedom, and just in time. For shortly thereafter, on October 30 in the year of 1791, the slaves of Haiti staged a
massive revolt against the whites of the island. Believing that God wished slavery to be abolished and had
called him to lead Haiti out of enslavement, Toussaint did engage in the revolt. But he acted as the doctor for
the black army instead of joining the others in their ruthless massacre of the whites. In addition, before the
insurrection, he helped his master’s family to escape the country safely. However, the revolt was eventually
subdued and the slaves were once again subjugated to their former status. After the uprising was defeated,
Toussaint remained in the French portion of the island, even though most of the other black leaders of the revolt
fled to the Spanish side of Haiti and were given high-ranking posts. It was not until France turned from a
monarchy into a republic that Toussaint is reported to have averted to the Spanish to help them in their conquest
against the French. Toussaint experienced incredible success as a general, and soon, France desired him to
return. And due to the February 4, 1794 abolishment of slavery by the National Assembly, Toussaint did return
to the French’s aide. Having done so, Napoleon designated him Commander-in-Chief of the colony.
Upon his return to the French, he found several tasks awaiting him. First, the Spaniards were still attempting to
gain control over the French portion of Haiti. So Toussaint, gathering an army supplied by the French Governor
Polvenel, defeated the Spanish. The Treaty of Basel forced Spain to relinquish its holdings in Haiti, but
promised peace between the two countries. Toussaint next set out to work against the internal discord of the
country that divided the French peoples of different races and colors. In addition, Toussaint mustered another
army and advanced against the British who had been encroaching upon French’s territory in Haiti. Leaving the
British general Sir Thomas Brisbane safely trapped in Fort St. Nicholas, Toussaint began implementing a plan
to replace the French white men who held political offices in Haiti with blacks by creating subtle excuses to
send the white officials on assignments to France. Finally, even the governor had left, and Toussaint replaced
him with a black man by the name of Raymond.
With peace now established and the entire island now under control, though only for a brief time, Toussaint
began implementing social reforms and improving the country’s infrastructure. Racial discrimination was nonexistent in Toussaint’s choices of advisors and governmental personal. He based his decisions solely upon a
person’s ability to perform a needed task. Toussaint constructed roads, repaired forts, enhanced agriculture,
restructured the country’s armed forces, built schools for the black children, and declared free trade throughout
the country. However, in an effort to keep Haiti economically stable and prosperous, Toussaint invited the
former plantation owners to return to the country and ensured them that the blacks would again work for them,
but only for payment. Yet this was not satisfactory to the Africans and soon his people rose up against him, led
by his own nephew. After he finished subduing this outburst, the island’s mulatto population (those of mixed
blood) revolted under General Rigaud. Toussaint then turned to the United Sates for assistance, promising
President John Adams that if the US would support him against the mulattoes, he would deny France the use of
Haiti as a platform for maneuvers in North America. With the aid of American forces, the insurrection was soon
defeated, and in 1800, Rigaud and his remaining men fled the country.
These social upheavals were again followed by a short time of peace, in which Toussaint undertook the writing
and establishment of the country’s constitution. This constitution ensured liberty and equality for all peoples
regardless of race or color. It also named Toussaint as governor of the country for life and provided him the
right to choose his successor. However, this did not settle well with the now jealous French commander
Napoleon. Enraged, in January of 1802 Napoleon sent an army of approximately 20,000 men under the
command of general Leclerc against Toussaint, but did so under a pretext of peace. Toussaint, however, saw
through these deceptions and gathered an army from among the Haitians. War ensued, and the death toll
climbed high. But in the French camp this was more often due to the deadly smallpox disease which many of
the soldiers contracted. Yet, eventually, Toussaint’s forces were utterly exhausted and on May 5, 1802 he
accepted a peace treaty with Leclerc which ensured Haiti’s independence and allowed Toussaint to retire to his
estates in peace, provided that the fighting ceased. But treachery was afoot. Leclerc, under Napoleons orders,
later invited Toussaint to a meeting where, despite Leclerc’s promise of safe conduct, the general had him
captured, bound hand and foot, and put aboard a waiting ship. Toussaint was then transported to France and
thrown into the dungeon of Fort de Joux in the Jura Mountains. And on April 7, 1803, Toussaint L’Ouverture
died of apoplexy, pneumonia, and starvation.
After Toussaint’s death, Haiti was restored to French domination and slavery was re-implemented. Toussaint’s
life seemed a failure—ineffective and useless. But as history now reveals, this was far from the case. The taste
of freedom that Toussaint had enabled the Haitians to feel was not in vain. Just six months later, Napoleon,
preoccupied with wars in Europe, relinquished his holdings in the New World. Having already lost thousands of
soldiers in Haiti alone, the colonies proved too much work to be worth their keeping. So Napoleon allowed
Haiti its independence and sold his possession of the western North American continent to the United States in
the Louisiana Purchase. Haiti’s independence is owed to Toussaint’s workings for freedom of both slaves and
the country. Toussaint obviously had his own faults, and his life was not without mistakes and questionable
regulations. Yet despite this, Toussaint’s life clearly was not lived in vain. His accomplishments remain visible
even today. On the day of Toussaint’s birth, the world had no idea what kind of a man had been brought into
being; but now this man will never be forgotten.
Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla
Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla (1753-1811), a Mexican revolutionary priest, is considered the foremost patriot of
Mexican independence. He led a revolt against Spanish rule that inaugurated a series of military and political
episodes culminating in the achievement of Mexican independence in 1821.
Miguel Hidalgo was born a Creole on May 8, 1753. His father was the administrator of a hacienda in the Bajío
(in the present state of Guanajuato). Miguel was trained briefly in a Jesuit school before the order was expelled
from the empire in 1767. Later that year he matriculated in the diocesan College of San Nicolás in Valladolid
(now Morelia). Hidalgo was intellectually oriented and chose to remain part of the academic community long
after he had earned degrees in theology and had been ordained. By 1776 he was a member of the San Nicolás
faculty and remained in Valladolid until 1792 as an academician, an exponent of the Enlightenment, and a Don
Juan. In 1790 he became rector of the college, but his advanced ideas and mismanagement of funds soon led to
his ouster.
From 1792 until 1810 Hidalgo served as parish priest in a succession of curacies. While in San Felipe (17931803), he made his house a salon and promoted French theatrical works (which he translated), orchestral music,
dances, and literary discussions. The Inquisition investigated his activities (1800-1801) but did not press
charges. On his arrival in Dolores near Guanajuato in 1803, Hidalgo turned to more socioeconomic interests.
These he expressed through his development of local craft industries (ceramics, tanning, sericulture) for the
benefit of the Indian and caste population.
Start of a Rebellion
With the Napoleonic invasion of Spain in 1808, Mexico's own crisis began. Hidalgo's search for intellectual
companionship had brought him into contact with prominent Creoles throughout the Bajío, Michoacán, and
adjacent areas. When the Creoles in Querétaro organized a plot to expel the dominant peninsular Spaniards and
to substitute themselves in power, Hidalgo joined. Articulate, well informed, and charismatic, he soon emerged
as the uprising's leader, with Ignacio Allende, a militia captain, as second in command.
Exposed in early September 1810, the conspirators were forced to revolt prematurely. In a dramatic episode,
Hidalgo put the plan into effect on September 16 by delivering an impassioned speech, the Grito de Dolores, to
his parishioners. Avoiding abstractions like "independence," which were meaningless to the untutored villagers,
he couched his revolutionary appeals in traditional protest language: the Catholic religion and the exiled king,
Ferdinand VII, were extolled, and "death to bad government," represented by the peninsular Spaniards, was
urged. The native patroness, the Virgin of Guadalupe, was added to the slogans, and her image became the
banner of the revolt.
Hidalgo permitted Indians and castes to join his holy war of redemption in such numbers that the original white
Creole motives of the insurrection were obscured. The jacquerie swept through the Bajío, burning and looting,
until it engulfed the mining center of Guanajuato on September 28. The massacre of the Spanish defenders of
the fortress granary and the subsequent sack of the city set the tone for the Hidalgo revolt. Hidalgo took
Valladolid in mid-October and then marched on Mexico City. His horde numbered some 80,000 as it
approached the viceregal capital.
Turn of the Tide
Meanwhile, the royalist government in Mexico City, under the leadership of Viceroy Francisco Venegas, had
prepared defenses as much psychological as military. An intensive propaganda campaign had advertised the
destructive horrors of the social revolution and revealed its threat to vested Creole interests. Hidalgo won a
Pyrrhic victory on October 30 at Monte de las Cruces on the divide between Toluca and the capital but found
the sedentary Indians and castes of the Valley of Mexico as much opposed to the Bajío intruders as were the
Creoles and Spaniards. Threatened from the north by an army under the royalist general Félix Calleja, Hidalgo
withdrew to Guadalajara to recoup without attacking Mexico City.
From his new base, Hidalgo made rudimentary efforts to establish a separatist government and to ameliorate the
economic plight of the lower sectors of society (abolition of slavery and tribute were confirmed, and lands were
ordered restored to Indian communities). Hidalgo, a strong egoist, however, assumed grandiose airs and
exacerbated a growing schism with Allende's Creole faction. In January 1811 Calleja threatened Guadalajara,
and Hidalgo advanced east to meet him at the bridge of Calderón with nearly 100,000 men. Calleja's disciplined
army of 7,000 men defeated Hidalgo's horde on January 17, and Hidalgo fled north.
Suspended from command by the Allende party, Hidalgo was only a figurehead during the retreat. Allende's
attempt in March to reach the United States was thwarted at Baján north of Saltillo, and the major leaders of the
rebellion were captured. Hidalgo and his companions were removed to Chihuahua for trial and the inevitable
executions. Aware that his enterprise had been a catastrophe, Hidalgo repented and apparently signed a public
retraction. He was shot on July 30, 1811, and his body decapitated.
After Hidalgo's death his cause languished in spite of the efforts of José María Morelos, for the Creole majority
remained opposed. In 1821 Agustín de Iturbide engineered a conservative independence and established a shortlived empire. After the republican overthrown of Iturbide, Hidalgo emerged as a patriotic hero. Modern Mexico
venerates him as the Padre de la Patria, and the anniversary of his Grito is celebrated on September 16 as
Mexico's independence day.
Jose Maria Morelos:
José María Morelos (September 30, 1765 – December 22, 1815) was a Mexican priest and revolutionary. He
was in overall military command of Mexico’s Independence movement in 1811-1815 before he was captured,
tried and executed by the Spanish. He is considered one of the greatest heroes of Mexico and countless things
are named after him, including the State of Morelos and the city of Morelia.
Early Life of Jose Maria Morelos:
José María was born into a lower-class family (his father was a carpenter) in the city of Valladolid in 1865. He
worked as a farm hand, muleteer and menial laborer until entering the seminary. The director of his school was
none other than Miguel Hidalgo, who must have left an impression on the young Morelos. He was ordained as a
priest in 1797 and served in the towns of Churumuco and Carácuaro. His career as a priest was solid and he
enjoyed the favor of his superiors: unlike Hidalgo, he showed no propensity for "dangerous thoughts" before the
revolution of 1810.
Morelos and Hidalgo:
On September 16, 1810, Hidalgo issued the famous "Cry of Dolores," kicking off Mexico's struggle for
independence. Hidalgo was soon joined by others, including former royal officer Ignacio Allende and they
raised an army of liberation. Morelos made his way to the rebel army and met with Hidalgo, who made him a
lieutenant and ordered him to raise an army in the south and march on Acapulco. After the meeting, they went
their separate ways. Hidalgo would get close to Mexico City but was eventually defeated at the Battle of
Calderon Bridge, captured shortly thereafter and executed for treason. Morelos, however, was just getting
started.
Morelos takes up Arms:
Ever the proper priest, Morelos coolly informed his superiors that he was joining the rebellion so that they could
appoint a replacement. He began rounding up men and marching west. Unlike Hidalgo, Morelos preferred a
small, well-armed, well-disciplined army that could move fast and strike without warning. Often, he would
reject recruits who worked the fields, telling them instead to raise food to feed the army in the days to come. By
November he had an army of 2,000 men and on November 12 he occupied the medium-sized town of
Aguacatillo, near Acapulco.
Morelos in 1811 – 1812:
Morelos was crushed to learn of the capture of Hidalgo and Allende in early 1811. Still, he fought on, laying an
abortive siege to Acapulco before taking the city of Oaxaca in December of 1812. Meanwhile, politics had
entered the struggle for Mexican independence in the form of a congress presided over by Ignacio López
Rayón, once a member of Hidalgo's inner circle. Morelos was often in the field, but always had representatives
at the meetings of congress, where they pushed on his behalf for formal independence, equal rights for all
Mexicans and continued privilege of the Catholic Church in Mexican affairs.
The Spanish strike back:
By 1813, the Spanish had finally organized a response to the Mexican insurgents. Felix Calleja, the general who
had defeated Hidalgo at the Battle of Calderon Bridge, was made Viceroy, and he pursued an aggressive
strategy of quashing the rebellion. He divided and conquered the pockets of resistance in the north before
turning his attention to Morelos and the south. Celleja moved into the south in force, capturing towns and
executing prisoners. In December of 1813, the insurgents lost a key battle at Valladolid and were put on the
defensive.
Death of Morelos:
By early 1814, the rebels were on the run. Morelos was an inspired guerrilla commander, but the Spanish had
him outnumbered and outgunned. The insurgent Mexican congress was constantly moving, trying to stay one
step ahead of the Spanish. In November of 1815, the Congress was on the move again and Morelos was
assigned to escort it. The Spanish caught them at Tezmalaca and a battle ensued. Morelos bravely held off the
Spanish while the congress escaped, but he was captured during the fighting. He was sent to Mexico City in
chains. There, he was tried, excommunicated and executed on December 22.
Morelos’ Beliefs:
Morelos felt a true connection to his people, and they loved him for it. He fought to remove all class and race
distinctions. He was one of the first true Mexican nationalists: he had a vision of a unified, free Mexico whereas
many of his contemporaries had closer allegiances to cities or regions. He differed from Hidalgo in many key
ways: he did not allow churches or the homes of allies to be looted and actively sought support among Mexico’s
wealthy Creole upper class. Ever the priest, he believed that it was God’s will that Mexico be a free, sovereign
nation: the revolution became almost a holy war for him.
Legacy of José María Morelos:
Morelos was the right man at the right time. Hidalgo started the revolution, but his animosity towards the upper
classes and his refusal to rein in the rabble that made up his army eventually caused more problems than they
solved. Morelos, on the other hand, was a true man of the people, charismatic and devout. He had a more
constructive vision than Hidalgo and exuded a palpable belief in a better tomorrow with equality for all
Mexicans.
Morelos was an interesting mixture of the best characteristics of Hidalgo and Allende and the perfect man to
carry the torch they had dropped. Like Hidalgo, he was very charismatic and emotional, and like Allende, he
preferred a small, well-trained army over a massive rabble. He notched up several key victories and ensured that
the revolution would live on with or without him. After his capture and execution, two of his lieutenants,
Vicente Guerrero and Guadalupe Victoria, carried on the fight.
Morelos is greatly honored today in Mexico. The State of Morelos and City of Morelia are named after him, as
are a major stadium, countless streets and parks and even a couple of communications satellites. His image has
appeared on several bills and coins over Mexico's history. His remains are interred at the Column of
Independence in Mexico City along with other national heroes.
José de San Martín -- The
Knight of the Andes
One of the principal liberators of South America from Spanish rule was Jose de San Martin. He is also known as
Argentina's liberator, and was one of the principal revolutionary fighters against royalist forces in South America. He
was a master of military strategy, a skill which led him to success. San Martin became a national hero in many South
American countries, particularly in Argentina, where he also had strong personal ties, as he was born there, and
enforced his ties by later marrying an Argentine. In this paper, I will discuss the biography of San Martin, a person who
made important history in colonial America.
Jose de San Martin was born on February 25, 1778 in Yapey'u, located in the viceroyalty of Rio de la Plata',
which is now known as eastern Argentina. His mother was Gregoria Matorras, and his father was Juan de San
Martin, a professional soldier and government administrator of Yapey'u. In 1784, when San Martin was six
years old, the family returned to Spain, where he was educated at the "Seminario de Nobles" from 1785 until
1789. He started his military career early in the Murcia infantry regiment (South Eastern Spain). He served as
an army officer against the forces of Napoleon between 1808 and 1811.
Even though San Martin was loyal towards his mother country (Spain) when he fought against Napoleon, he
disliked the traditional absolute monarchy and the existing colonial system. In 1811, he decided to resign from
Spanish service. After meeting revolutionary Spanish Americans in London, England, he sailed for
Buenos Aires, and was almost immediately taken into service in the revolutionary regime. As a very
experienced soldier, he was a great asset in the revolutionary movement in South America.
Upon his arrival in Buenos Aires in March 1812, he was given the task of organizing an armed force to be used
against the Spanish royalists in Peru. These royalists were threatening the government of Argentina, thus
endangering the opposition movement in the country. San Martin appears to have always felt that he was tied to
the country he was born. He "Reinforced these ties when he married Maria de los Remedios Escalada in
September, 1812." Maria came from an Argentine upper-class family of Spanish blood. He became more
involved in internal politics of the area by helping to form the "Lautaro Lodge", which was an underground
movement which later aligned itself with the opposition to the government that was in power. The organization
that the "Lautaro Lodge" was aligned with was the "First Triumvirate", which was led by Bernardino Rivadvia.
The political objectives of the two aligned organizations were however quite different, as Rivadavia was
interested in Buenos Aires on a local level, and the Lautaro Lodge's main mission was to liberate Spanish
America from a broader perspective. These differences created a split in the coalition, and in December 1812,
Rivadavia was overthrown.
In February 3, 1813, San Martin entered his first battle in South America, and managed to defeat a royalist force
that came up the "Parana River". In 1813, the government in Buenos Aires sent him to the Northern provinces
of Argentina, in the purpose of stabilizing and strengthen the anti royalist movement over there.
Unfortunately, his efforts were cut short due to his weakening health. In the middle of 1814, he had to briefly
retire for rest. That gave him ample time to make strategic plans, that would facilitate his main objective of
overthrowing the royalists in Peru. He believed that the best way to accomplish his plans was to enter Peru
through the mountains of Upper Peru. This was the most direct way, but also the most difficult, due to the
physical structure of the Andes. Another, a perhaps more promising route would be to move towards the west,
from Argentina to Chile, and by sea to the "Peruvian coast".
San Martin started to prepare his plans, and by asking for reassignment to the governor-ship of Cuyo, which
was located at the foot of the Andes in western Argentina, he was able to design his plans. In 1816,
representatives of the Argentine provinces met at the Congress of Tucuman, "San Martin chose the side of an
outright declaration of independence from Spain, which the congress issued on July 9." He believed that a
liberal-constitutional monarchy was the best hope for stability in the new nations of Spanish America.
In January 1817, he started to cross the Andes. He led his army 15,000 feet above sea level, a feat that has been
compared to Hannibal's crossing of the Alps. His force consisted of about 3,000 infantry soldiers, and 250
artillery troops. By winning the battle of Maipu in April 5, 1818, royalists in Chile were defeated. Later that
year, San Martin was offered the supreme dictatorship of Chile, but he did not accept it in favor of his friend
O'Higgins. Chilean, Bernado O'Higgins, became a close partner to San Martin in their struggle of creating
independent American kingdoms. Tired of the use of military force, San Martin now tried to negotiate with the
royalists, and hoped that they would accept a peaceful settlement. He proposed that Peru should be converted
into an independent monarchy. The negotiations led to nothing. The use of military force was now inevitable,
and instead of attacking Peru by land, he devised a sea strike, coordinated with rebel Chilean troops. With
control of the seas, his army easily conquered Peru, and entered Lima in 1821. San Martin formally declared the
independence of Peru on July 28, 1921, and became the "Protector of Peru". He did not take power, instead he
met with fellow liberator Simon Bolivar at Guayquil in 1822, and Bolivar persuaded him to
withdraw from Peru. They both disagreed on the type of government that was to be formed, but they were both
committed to South American independence, and were both willing to continue the revolution. On September
20, 1822, San Martin reassigned his military command in Peru, and went into voluntary exile in Europe.
He went back to Argentina, and in 1824, a year after that his wife died, he took off for Europe with his
daughter.
In the end of 1828, he decided to go back to America. He wanted to see if he had anything to contribute to the
internal peace between the new nations. He returned to Europe in 1829, after that he decided that he would not
be to much help. After this, he lived as a retired man mainly in France. However, he was not totally
inactive, as he "gave moral support to the defenders of American sovereignty." Jose de San Martin died in
Boulogne-sur-Mer, France on August 17, 1850.
Dom Pedro (Pedro I)
Pedro I (1798-1834) was a Portuguese king and emperor of Brazil. As prince regent of
Brazil, he declared the independence of Brazil and then became emperor.
Pedro was born on Oct. 12, 1798, at the Queluz Palace in Lisbon, the son of the prince regent of Portugal (later
João VI) and his wife, Carlota Joaquina, the daughter of the Spanish Bourbon king Charles IV. In 1807 the
royal family fled to Brazil to escape Napoleon's invading armies. Pedro adapted well to the Brazilian milieu. He
was an excellent horseman, enjoyed the military life, and could compete with common soldiers and officers
equally. Also, he early demonstrated musical talents and later composed some music of creditable amateur
quality. He was considered to be handsome, and women found him attractive.
In 1817 Pedro married Carolina Josefa Leopoldina, the daughter of Francis I of Austria. Her intelligence,
consideration, and personality quickly earned her the respect and admiration of the Portuguese and Brazilians,
as well as of her husband, but she was unable to distract him from his amorous affairs.
In 1816 Pedro's father became João VI, King of Portugal and Brazil, which had been elevated from the status of
a colony to a kingdom in 1815. In 1821 João VI was forced to return to Portugal and leave Pedro as the prince
regent. Recognizing the independence sentiments in Brazil, and observing what was occurring in the Spanish
colonies of the New world, the King advised his son to declare Brazil independent and take the throne for
himself rather than allow an adventurer to take over the country. On Sept. 7, 1822, supported by Brazilians who
feared that the Portuguese would reduce the country to colonial status again, and following the advice of his
wife and his chief counselor, José Bonifácio de Andrada e Silva, Pedro declared the independence of Brazil and
established the Empire of Brazil with himself as emperor.
In 1823 Pedro I called a constituent assembly to formulate a constitution but dissolved the body later that year.
He promulgated a constitution on March 24, 1824, which remained Brazil's charter until 1889. The period was
disturbed by dissension between native-born Brazilians and those born in Portugal. Pedro I was Portuguese and
thus suspect to Brazilians, especially after he signed a treaty of peace with Portugal which left unresolved some
basic issues concerning future relations between the two countries. When João VI died in 1826, Pedro I
inherited the Portuguese crown, but the ruling of both countries by the Emperor was unacceptable to the
Brazilians. Pedro I abdicated the Portuguese throne in favor of his daughter Maria da Glória, who was betrothed
to her uncle Miguel.
Although he accepted constitutional monarchy, Pedro I was an absolutist in his approach to government. With
difficulty he accepted advice from the legislative branch of the government, and his attitudes led to conflict with
liberal Brazilians.Pedro's long-standing affair with Domitilia de Castro, upon whom he bestowed the title of
Marquêsa de Santos, was a cause of much criticism and provoked opposition. The Empress, Leopoldina, had
widespread public support when the Emperor moved his mistress into the palace. Leopoldina died in 1827, and
Pedro I continued his relationship with the Marquêsa de Santos until 1829, when he married Amélia Augusta
Eugénia Napoleona, daughter of Eugene of Litchenberg.
In April 1831 Pedro I unexpectedly abdicated in favor of his 5-year-old son, who became Pedro II. Returning to
Portugal, Pedro took up the cause of his daughter Maria da Glória, whose position as Maria II of Portugal was
being challenged by her uncle Miguel. Dom Pedro directed the political and military campaign which defeated
his brother and, acting as regent, had his daughter declared of age, although she was less than 18 years old. A
few days later, on Sept. 24, 1834, he died in the Queluz Palace