Saint John Vianney Theological Seminary
Archdiocese of Denver
Pauline Literature
Theo 5115
© Rev. Andreas Hoeck, S.S.D.
Table of Contents
TABLE OF CONTENTS ........................................................................................................... 2
I. Paul's Life and Mission ............................................................................................... 3
II. Classification and Format of New Testament Letters ............................................... 5
III. Paul's Epistolography ............................................................................................... 6
IV. Paul and the Old Testament ..................................................................................... 7
V. The First Letter to the Thessalonians, 50 A.D. (from Corinth, 2nd journey) ............. 9
VI. The Second Letter to the Thessalonians, 51 A.D. (from Corinth, 2nd journey) ..... 13
VII. The First Letter to the Corinthians, 56 A.D. (from Ephesus, 3rd journey)............ 16
VIII. The Second Letter to the Corinthians, 57 A.D. (from Macedonia, 3rd journey) . 34
IX. The Letter to the Galatians, 57 A.D. (from Ephesus, 3rd journey) ......................... 40
X. The Letter to the Romans, 57 A.D. (from Corinth, 3rd journey) ............................. 50
XI. The Letter to the Ephesians, 61 A.D. (from Rome, 1st captivity) ......................... 68
XII. The Letter to the Philippians, 62 A.D. (from Rome, 1st captivity) ....................... 77
XIII. The Letter to the Colossians, 63 A.D. (from Rome, 1st captivity) ...................... 84
XIV. The Letter to Philemon, 63 A.D. (from Rome, 1st captivity) .............................. 93
XV. The First Letter to Timothy, 65 A.D. (from Rome, 2st captivity) ......................... 95
XVI. The Letter to Titus, 66 A.D. (from Rome, 2st captivity) ................................... 100
XVII. The Second Letter to Timothy, 67 A.D. (from Rome, 2st captivity) ............... 102
XVIII. The Letter to the Hebrews, 67 A.D. (from Rome, 2st captivity)..................... 104
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................................... 126
2
Isagogics1 to Pauline Literature
I. Paul's Life and Mission2
Next to Christ Paul has been the most influential figure in the history of Christianity.
There are two sources for his life: biographical details in his own letters, and accounts of his
career in Acts (beginning with Stephen's martyrdom, 7:58). A mediate stance uses the
epistles as a primary source and cautiously supplements from Acts, not hastening to declare
apparent differences contradictory. No doubt, Acts offers theological interpretation of Paul,
adapting his role to fit an overall view of the spread of Christianity (cf. Acts 1:8),
telescoping and compacting more complex events.
Birth and upbringing: Paul was born ca. AD 5-10 (no mention of his mother),
citizen of Tarsus (Acts 22:3; 21:39), and Roman citizen (Acts 16:37f; 22:25-29) with basic
Hellenistic rhetorical skills. His full name was Saul Paul (Hebrew-Latin) according to the
Jewish custom of his time; he used “Paul” (Latin) when he started preaching among the
gentiles to have easier access to them. He learned the trade of tentmakers (Acts 18:3).
Brought up in Jerusalem and educated by Gamaliel I the Elder (ca. AD 20-50), Acts 22:33.
Paul is a Pharisee from his youth4, Acts 26:4f5. His religious interests devoured all else in
his life to the point of remaining unmarried. He seems to have left Jerusalem before Jesus
began his public ministry there, cf. 2 Cor 5:16.
Belief in Jesus and immediate aftermath: Paul says that he persecuted the Church
of Christ violently trying to destroy it (Gal 1:13) due to his zeal as a Pharisee. Did he
perceive the followers of Jesus as blaspheming against Moses by changing customs that the
Law decreed and by advocating the destruction of the Temple sanctuary (Acts 6:11-14;
8:1)? Paul then receives a divine revelation (Gal 1:13-17; Acts 9:1-9) after which he stayed
in Damascus. The encounter with the Risen Christ destines him for the mission to the
Gentiles (as a Diaspora Jew, he was not only knowledgeable about but also acutely feeling
for them). After a three-year interlude (in Damascus and Arabia = Nabatean kingdom) he
goes to Jerusalem to visit Peter and James (Gal 1:18f), then to Tarsus in Cilicia for several
years. Eventually Antioch in Syria (the third largest city in the Roman Empire after Rome
and Alexandria) became important in his life (Acts 11:25f), the base for his outgoing
missionary activity.
1
A branch of theology that is introductory to actual exegesis, emphasizing the literary and cultural
history of Biblical writings.
2
Cf. BROWN, R.E., Introduction 422-437.
3
Two theological schools were present in Jerusalem at the time: (i) one related to the conciliatory
and tolerant HILLEL who always found ways of leniency in the law, and (ii) one headed by the
rigorist SHAMMAI. Saul’s admired professor Gamaliel was Hillel’s worthy grandson.
4
According to rabbinical tradition the jewish boy was to start reading the Torah at age five, the
Mishná (oral tradition) age ten, become a Bar Mitzváh (“son of the law”; cf. Lk 2:42) age twelve,
study the Talmud (teaching) age fifteen, and be brought to the chuppa (bridal chamber) age eighteen.
5
J.C. LENTZ, Jr., denies the historicity of Paul’s social status: Luke portraits him as a hero without
historical claim, cf. Portrait.
3
First missionary journey, the Jerusalem meeting, the Antioch aftermath (it was
really Barnabas’ missionary voyage since it was he who was in charge; Paul joined him as
his collaborator): Acts 13:3–14:28, before AD 49, Barnabas, Paul and John Mark from
Antioch to Cyprus, Perga, Pisidian Antioch, Iconium, Lystra and Derbe. Having met
opposition in synagogues, Paul addressed himself to Gentiles among whom the Gospel was
well received. Ca. AD 49 a meeting (Council) was held in Jerusalem to answer the question
of the Gentile Christians. Decision: Gentiles are accepted without circumcision. Paul and
Barnabas come to an unhappy parting of ways.
Second and third missionary journeys: In the Second Journey (AD 50-52, Acts
15:40–18:22) Paul and Silas returned to sites in SE Asia Minor evangelized in the First
Journey, then to Galatia, Phrygia, over to Macedonia (Europe6) from Troas, Philippi,
Thessalonica, Beroea, Athens, and Corinth (1/2 Thess). With Aquila and Priscilla to
Ephesus, Caesarea Maritima, then up to Jerusalem. Third Journey (AD 53/54-58, Acts
18:23–21:15): After "some time" at Syrian Antioch he went once more through Galatia and
Phrygia to Ephesus (the most important city of the Roman province of Asia) where he
stayed for three years (54-57, Acts 20:31; 1 Cor, Gal, Phil, Phlm7). After Pentecost in 57
he left for Troas, crossing to Europe and Macedonia (Philippi? 2 Cor 2:12f; 2 Cor). Finally
to Achaia and Corinth (Rom). Acts 20:2-17: Paul sets out to Jerusalem by way of
Macedonia (Passover in Philippi), sailing to Troas, to Miletus (farewell speech to the
presbyters of Ephesus). Then to Tyre, Caesarea, with a foreboding of imprisonment and
death.
Paul arrested in Jerusalem; imprisoned in Caesarea; taken to Rome; death:
Most of the last half-dozen years (ca. 58-64) is recounted in Acts 21:15–28:31. Suffering by
imprisonment8. In Jerusalem a rather tense meeting beneath surface politeness with James
(Acts 21:17-25). His presence in the Temple court caused a riot, self-defense in Hebrew
(Aramaic? Acts 21:26–22:30). Paul creates a dispute between Sadducees and Pharisees at a
Sanhedrin session, then taken away to Caesarea, appealed to Caesar, travels to Rome. His
hazardous sea journey (AD 60/61) ends in Malta (Acts 27:1–28:14). Arriving finally in
Rome, spent two years under house arrest (Eph, Phil, Col, Phlm). Neither the letters nor
Acts tell us of his death; but there is good tradition that he was martyred under Nero 9, either
about the same time as St. Peter (AD 64) or somewhat later (AD 67), buried at the Via
Ostiensis (Basilica of St. Paul outside the Walls). His plan had been to undertake a fourth
missionary journey via Rome to Spain. Tradition affirms that he was released after two
years in Rome (63 A.D.), went to Spain10, and added another trip to the East; upon his return
to Rome he suffers a second arrest (1/2 Tim, Ti, Heb) and is martyred in 67 A.D.
6
God prompts him in a dream, Acts 16:9: cf. dreams in the lives of saints, ex.gr., Joseph in the OT,
Saint Joseph of Nazareth, St. John Don Bosco, et al..
7
And a "letter of tears" (cf. 2 Cor 2:3f), lost?
8
Those who do not attribute Phl and Phm to the putative imprisonment at Ephesus attribute them to
the imprisonment at Caesarea or at Rome, thus dating them later. Otherwise this period of Paul's life
cannot be confirmed by the Pauline letters.
9
Cf. EH 2.25.4-8.
10
Cf. Acts 1:8 ("to the end of the earth"); 1 Clem 5:7 (Paul "traveled to the extreme west");
Muratorian fragment (refers to Paul's departure for Spain).
4
Unfortunately, it has become customary to distinguish three tiers within the Pauline
Corpus:
i. “Undisputed” (also called proto-Pauline): 1 Thess, Gal, Phil, Phlm, 1/2 Cor, Rom;
ii. “Disputed” (deutero-Pauline): 2 Thess, Col, Eph;
iii. “Pseudonymous”11: Pastoral Letters (1/2 Tim, Ti).
13 Pauline epistles and Hebrews (Catholic Canon): Romans, 1/2 Corinthians, Galatians,
Captivity epistles (Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, Philemon), 1/2 Thessalonians,
Pastoral epistles (1/2 Timothy, Titus).
He has written more than 14 epistles, however: 1 Cor 5:9 mentions an earlier letter to
Corinth; Col 4:16 speaks of an epistle to the Laodiceans; according to Phil 3:1 he had
written an earlier letter to Philippi as well.
II. Classification and Format of New Testament Letters12
Classification: The thirteen epistles that bear Paul's name are divided into two
smaller collections: nine addressed to communities at geographical places (Rom, 1+2 Cor,
Gal, Eph, Phil, Col, 1/2 Thess), and four to individuals (1/2 Tim, Titus, Phlm). Hebrews has
long been associated with Paul. Each collection is arranged in descending order of length.
Letters could be written by the sender's own hand (Phlm) or dictated (Rom 16:22; 1
Cor 16:21; Gal 6:11; 2 Thess 3:17; Col 4:18). Paul's letters were meant to be read aloud in
order to persuade. They can be judged as ars rhetorica13.
Format: The Egyptian, Hellenistic and Roman world has left us many letters; they
tend to follow a set format. One who lacks knowledge of it can seriously misinterpret a
letter. Generally four parts of it are distinguished:
1) the Praescriptio (opening formula) consists of four elements: (a) superscriptio
(sender): name of the author, his identity and authority, names of co-senders; (b) adscriptio
(addressee): personal name or community in stated region; (c) salutatio (greeting):
"greetings" or "peace" (reflecting Hebrew 'shalom'); (d) remembrance or health wish: the
sender prays for the welfare of the addressee and gives assurance of the sender's own health
(1 Thess 1:2f).
2) Thanksgiving: faithfulness to the congregation addressed, supplication for the
continuance of such fidelity, anticipation of main theme of the message, expression of joy, a
captatio benevolentiae, putting hearers/readers in a benevolent mood to receive a message.
3) Body: with transitional sentences at the beginning (body-opening) and the end
(body-closing).
4) Concluding formula: wish for good health, a word of farewell, greetings,
doxologies, benediction of recipients.
11
Assigned to a category of letters written by earliest Pauline interpreters after his death, A.D. 70100.
12
Cf. BROWN, R.E., Introduction 409-421.
13
According to ARISTOTLE's three modes of argumentation in rhetoric: judicial (or forensic),
deliberative (or hortatory), demonstrative (or epideictic), cf. Ars rhetorica 1.3; §1358b.
5
III. Paul's Epistolography
Various collections of letters by important writers have come down to us from
classical times. For instance those of Cicero, Pliny the Younger, St. Clement of Rome, St.
Ignatius of Antioch, St. Athanasius, St. Basil, St. Gregory Nazianzen, St. Paulinus of Nola,
St. Ambrose, St. Jerome, St. Augustine etc.
However, even from a literary point of view the Pauline letters are quite outstanding.
No writer of ancient times can be compared to him, none approaches the depth, strength,
passion and vision of the Apostle of the Gentiles. But many early writers were in fact
disciples of Paul, dedicated apprentices of his and his unique epistolography. His letters
have all the features of real correspondence, not written with a literary purpose, nor are they
intellectual reflections cast in letter form, nor elaborations of some earlier texts.
CHRYSOSTOM compares his letters to a mine, containing limitless resources of the most
precious metals; or sources which flow more the abundantly the more one draws from them.
JEROME affirms: “As often as I read Paul I am hearing not so much words, but bolts of
thunder”.
They have all the immediacy of things said and dictated on the spot, not seldomly
interrupted for days and even weeks. Paul links ideas by associations, he goes back over
things already spoken about, keeps repeating ideas which he sees as very important, he
develops his arguments slowly, moving in concentric circles. Sometimes he rises suddenly
to dizzy heights, pursuing an insight, on other occasions he writes straight from the heart
and the tone is warm and passionate; he sometimes uses irony, reproach and even cutting
words if he feels that is what his readers need.
Paul's style does not follow any fixed method; but there is a basic order to it. In each
letter there are one or more core themes to which the Apostle keeps returning, and these lead
him on to other ideas which seem to be incidental. This explains why we sometimes find
unfinished sentences: the writer's thought has gone off on a tangent and does not come back.
These clauses have a poetry and strength and vitality of their own.
Still, these epistles largely do keep to the general structure of a traditional letter. Paul
begins with a greeting, a vibrant, supernatural recollection. He gives a little news about
himself and sends his best wishes for peace, grace and divine assistance. He then moves on
to deal with the dogmatic matter(s) he deems necessary to expound. He then reminds his
readers of their ethical duty, in all situations, to be charitable, and, always using new
imagery, he paints an attractive picture of what the Christian life involves, how magnificent
it is, and how demanding it is also. Specific moral imperatives stem from the indicative of
one’s relationship to God through Christ; thus, ethical conduct is the practical, personal
expression of one’s faith, hope and love; in fact, moral behavior is man’s response to the
impulse and promptings of God’s grace: orthopraxy results from orthodoxy, never
viceversa! The Apostle then ends the letter renewing his good wishes and greetings, and
praising God14.
Paul’s letters constitute the first written Christian theology, that is, they are the first
conscious intellectual effort to make theological sense out of Jesus. In them he works at
resolving disputes among the early Christians. They are rich with references to himself. He
14
Cf. The Bible and Morality, Biblical Roots of Christian Conduct, Pontifical Biblical Commission
2008.
6
understands that selfhood in terms of relationships to Christ and his people. His epistles are
second only to the Gospels in their formative impact on Christian thinking and belief.
Perhaps the biggest surprise is how little they say about the Jesus of the Gospels. Though
the Gospels may not have been written down when Paul sent his letters, the stories on Christ
must have been in circulation and Paul must have known them. He mentions almost nothing
about them: he doesn’t write about the calling of the apostles, about Jesus’ miracles, about
his speeches (parables) and encounters with enemies and friends.
The barest minimum of the kernel story of redemption (= Kerygma) seems to be
sufficient for him, Gal 3:1. Paul does not imagine the simple country life that Jesus pictures,
a world of agricultural work and the cycles of organic life15. Paul’s imagined world is the
world of ancient urban-pagan Rome, the army as a profession, the imperial wars, the
stadium with its Greco-Roman sporting events and the competitive athletes vying for the
laurel wreath. His imagination is filled with conflict, competition, tension, battle and
endangerment in this world. Jesus’ non-violent passivity is replaced by the use of certain
pugnacious, aggressive images that helped prepare early Christian martyrs for the trials of
endurance they faced. Paul’s historical paradigm is that of sin-redemption-eschaton; his
moving optimism was to remake the way in which Christians imagined past, present and
future. His habit of typological reading of the Hebrew Scriptures was to become in the early
centuries of Christianity one of the central ways of imagining the life of Christ and of the
Church.
IV. Paul and the Old Testament16
The writings of the apostle Paul reveal a person immersed in the content and
teaching of the OT. Every leading conception of his religious terminology and has its roots
definitely laid in OT soil: dogmatic proofs (e.g. Rom 3:10-18), analogies (e.g. Rom 2:24),
illustrations (cf. Rom 10:6-8), and language to merely clothe his thought (e.g. 1 Cor 15:32).
The Pauline use of the OT appears in three distinct forms:
1. Quotations proper;
2. Intentional and casual allusion;
3. Theological theme.
Paul quotes (mainly in Rom, 1,2 Cor, Gal) the OT 93 times (about 1/3 of all NT
quotations); drawn from 16 OT books (33 from Pentateuch, 25 from Isa, 19 from Psalms).
51 quotations are in absolute or virtual agreement with the Septuagint (LXX), 22 of which
at variance with the Hebrew Masoretic Text (MT). Even where the apostle quite evidently
sees in a citation the underlying connotations of the Hebrew, the Alexandrian version
(LXX) remains his mode of expression.
Paul’s use of the OT cannot be understood apart from his attitude towards it. To him
the Scriptures are holy and prophetic. All his important doctrines are buttressed by an appeal
to his Bible, which is ‘God-breathed’ (qeo,pneustoj, ‘inspired’, 2 Tim 3:16). Although
15
16
No vibrant allusion to the beauty of nature whatsoever.
Cf. ELLIS, Old Testament.
7
the OT is sometimes referred to as ‘the law’, ‘the writings’, or ‘the law and the prophets’,
‘the scripture’ (h grafh,) is the prevailing usage.
In the Pauline epistles an Introductory Formula (IF) is most common: ‘it is written’
(29 times), ‘the scripture says’ (6 times), ‘David says’, ‘the law says’, ‘God said’, indicating
the value of the unalterable Word of God. Paul accepts the hagiographic cooperation of the
writer, excluded by the Alexandrian concept, cf. Rom 10:20. The scripture is adduced as a
final authority and one divinely planned whole whose significance is bound up inseparably
with the New Covenant community of Christians.
The apostle’s notion of grafh, is linked to two other words, gra,mma and
pneu/ma. Gra,mma is usually employed in an uncomplimentary manner in his letters,
frequently set in opposition to pneuma (cf. Rom 2:27.29; 7:6; 2 Cor 3:6f). Grafh, and
no,moj both signify for Paul the revealed will of God. But the law understood as a legal
system apart from Christ could only bring death; so also the whole OT understood and
applied without the illumination of the pneuma often resulted not in grafh,, but only in
gra,mma. The issue of the Law versus Christ here passes into Paul’s understanding of the
nature of Scripture itself. Grafh, is the Spirit-carried letter, the Spirit-interpreted letter.
There are a few quotations (with IF) in the Pauline epistles which do not appear on
first observation to be derived from the OT: 1 Cor 2:9; Eph 4:8; 5:14; probably 1 Cor
15:45b and 1 Tim 5:18b. Do they result from apocryphal writings, from a variant Greek
text, from a paraphrastic rendering, or a merged quotation? A departure of this kind surely
would have aroused some vocal repercussion in canon-conscious first century Judaism. Yet
there was an extension of the concept of grafh, in the apostolic community: the sayings
of Christ were regarded as the Word of God by Paul, and 2Pt 3:16 appears to equate the
Pauline writings with Scripture; furthermore, the exercise of the gift of prophecy was no less
from the Holy Spirit than the oracles of the OT prophets. If these observations are correct,
and if Eph 5:14 does not find its ultimate source in the OT, the most probable alternative
source is a saying either of Jesus or of a Christian prophet.
Paul adopts many of the Jewish literary methods: IFs, merged quotations, allegory.
The significant conclusion, however, is the great chasm separating the writings of Paul from
the rabbis. The apostle’s OT exegesis was not just an adoption of current traditions but
reveals a vitality and understanding totally foreign to rabbinical literature. If Paul used
Jewish methods and interpretations, he culled and molded them to a Christological
understanding of the OT: Messiah, Cross, Resurrection reveal the true meaning of Scripture.
Paul was a disciple of Christ, not of Gamaliel! In emphasizing his direct revelation from
Jesus Christ he asserts the independence of his message from any earthly authority, Gal
1:11f. There is, however, an interdependence on a common stock of teaching and hymnody
current in the Church. The whole concept of Christianity being the true Israel lies embryonic
in the earliest stages of the Christian movement. Paul’s typological use of the OT reflects
the teachings of Christ (‘rock’, ‘rejected stone’, ‘living bread’, ‘temple’, etc.).
The apostle uses the OT selectively; he makes no attempt to exploit even the whole
corpus of messianic prediction either as it refers to Christ or to the messianic age.
Nevertheless, the subjects on which he dwells read like an outline of biblical theology:
The fall of man and its effects, Rom 5:12ff; The universality of sin, Rom 3:10ff; The
coming of Christ and the Gospel, Rom 1:2; Gal 3:8.14; The obedience and sufferings of
Christ, Rom 15:3; The resurrection of Christ, 1 Cor 15:1ff; The Lordship of Christ, 1 Cor
15:25.27; The sovereignty of God, Rom 9:15.17.20; Divine election, Rom 9:7.10ff; 11:4f;
8
The rejection of Israel and calling of the gentiles, Rom 9:25ff; 10:16ff; The universality of
the Gospel, Rom 10:18; The forgiveness of sin, Rom 4:6; 9:33; 10:11ff; Justification by
faith, Rom 1:17; 4:1ff; 10:5ff; Baptism and the Lord’s supper, 1 Cor 10:1ff; The gifts of the
Spirit, Eph 4:8; Christian conduct, Rom 12:19; 13:9; 1 Cor 9:9; The persecution of
Christians, Rom 8:36; The parousia of Christ, 2 Thess 1:8-10; The final judgment, Rom
14:11; The final overthrow of death, 1 Cor 15:54ff.
In conclusion, the significance of the OT for Paul’s theology can hardly be
overestimated. His experience on the Damascus road radically altered his understanding of
the Book, but it in no way lessened its importance for the apostle of the gentiles. Rather, his
knowledge of Christ opened to him a New Way in which he found the true meaning of the
Scriptures.
In the 50s of the 1st cent Paul produced the earliest surviving Christian documents.
One can discern the development of his thought in these terms: first the seed (1/2 Thess),
followed by the verdant ear (the four great ones, Rom, 1/2 Cor, Gal), then the mature grain
(captivity letters, Eph, Phil, Col, Phlm), and finally the gleanings (pastoral letters, 1/2 Tim,
Ti) and vintage (Heb). Their presentation below will follow the conjectural timeline of their
original publication.
N.B.: The methodology employed in this course’s exegesis is at the same time (i)
synchronic (chiefly patristic [listening to the timeless thought of the Fathers of the Church],
narratological [recognizing the storyline], and canonical [reading individual texts of the
Bible in the context of the whole as indicated by the axiom Scriptura Scripturis, or
Scriptura sui ipsius interpres]), and (ii) diachronic (i.e., historico-critical [investigating the
text’s historicity])17.
V. The First Letter to the Thessalonians, 50 A.D. (from Corinth, 2nd journey)
Thessalonica: The modern Saloniki, formerly Thermae (hot mineral springs in
vicinity), situated on the northwestern part of the Thermaic Gulf, and the Via Egnatia, the
great Roman East-West highway of trade. Occupied by the Athenians, destroyed during the
Peloponnesian war in 421 B.C., rebuilt by Cassander, who gave it the name of his wife,
Thessalonica, the half-sister of Alexander the Great. After the battle of Pydna the city
surrendered to the Romans in 168 B.C., made capital of one of the four districts of
Macedonia, later its metropolis. In 42 B.C. it became a free Greek city with ensuing
privileges, cf. Acts 17:6. In the time of Paul a most flourishing and populous city of
Macedonia; inhabitants chiefly Greeks, Romans and numerous Jewish colony with own
synagogue, cf. Acts 17:1.
In accordance with BENEDICT XVI’s Foreword to Jesus xi-xxiv, his book God’s Word 114-126,
and the PONTIFICAL BIBLICAL COMMISSION’s Interpretation of the Bible in the Church 1993.
17
9
Thessalonian Church: Paul, Silas18, perhaps Timothy also, came to Thessalonica
during first part of second missionary journey, following his expulsion from Philippi (Acts
17:1ff). Some few months must have been required for the establishment of this flourishing
Church, as it afterwards proved to be. The envy of the Jews forced them out before their
work was finished.
Occasion and Purpose of 1/2 Thess: Continued or fresh persecutions there caused
Paul to send Timothy to that troubled Church with a message of encouragement and
consolation. There were also some errors and abuses that needed correcting. It seems that
the Apostle's authority and the methods of his ministry had been questioned in certain
quarters (1 Thess 2:1-12). Some were in danger of lapsing back into their pagan vices, while
others were idle and restless, waiting for the Parousia (1 Thess 4:1-12). Still others were
troubled over the fate of relatives who had died before the coming of the Lord; and certain
ones had grown careless as a result of the Parousia being too long delayed (1 Thess 4:13–
5:11). It seems that there was also some disorder or lack of respect for those in authority (1
Thess 5:12-15).
Date and Place of Writing: All authorities, ancient and modern, are well agreed
that 1/2 Thess were written at Corinth during the Apostle's long stay in that city of over
eighteen months on his second missionary journey (Acts 18:1-8), around 50/51 A.D., thus
the earliest writing of the whole NT: in Aquila’s humble tentmaker shop begins the New
Testament19.
Authenticity: The external and internal evidence in favor of the genuineness of 1/2
Thess is so strong as to place it beyond all questions.
Epistolary contours20:
Inscription, 1:1
I. Paul's solicitude for the Thessalonians, 1:2–3:13
II. Exhortations on Christian life, 4:1–5:22
Conclusion, Salutation and Blessing, 5:23-28
1:3: This, along with 5:8, is the earliest mention in Christian literature of the three
theological virtues of Faith, Hope, Love in their fruitful exercise (cf. 1 Cor 13:13). The
syntactic order here stresses eschatological hope, in line with the letter’s emphasis on the
Lord’s parousia (cf. 1:10; 2:12.19; 3:13; 4:13–5:11.23).
1:6: Paul’s theme of “imitation” (mimhth,j, cf. 2:14; 1 Cor 4:16; 11:1; 2 Thess
3:9) is rooted in his view of solidarity in Christ through sharing in His cross.
Silas (attested only in Acts) is a Greek form of a Jewish name (perhaps she’al “to invoke”, same
root as Saul; Paul calls him Silvanus in his epistles).
19
Reminiscent of Mary’s house in Nazareth.
20
Cf. also RICHARD, E.J., First and Second Thessalonians, Sacra Pagina Series 11, Collegeville
1995, p. 13.
18
10
2:7: Many excellent mss read “infants” (nh,pioi) here, the NVg has “parvuli”;
another authoritative variant is “gentle” (h;pioi) which would suit the context, too. Paul
sees himself as a mother or nurse, trofo,j.
2:14: Luke’s picture of the persecutions at Philippi (by Gentiles) and in Thessalonica
and Beroea (by Jews) seems to be schematized (cf. Acts 16:11-40; 17:1-15). Paul portrays
the Thessalonian community as composed of converts from paganism (1:9) and speaks here
of persecution by their pagan compatriots rather than by Jews.
2:15-16: Not to be read in an Anti-Semitic key, but rather in the light of eschatology
and of Paul’s pride in his own ethnic background (cf. Rom 9:1-5; 10:1; 11:1-3; Phil 3:4-6).
4:2: These “instructions” (paraggeli,aj) include specific guidelines on the basis
of the Lord’s authority, not necessarily sayings Jesus actually uttered. The concluding v.8
implies that these are practical principles in accordance with the role of the Holy Spirit.
4:3-7: Paul is dealing with a variety of moral regulations (fornication, adultery,
sharp business practices). Specific problem: marriage within degrees of consanguinity (as
between uncle and niece) forbidden in Jewish law but allowed according to a Greek heiress
law, which would insure retention of an inheritance within the family and perhaps thereby
occasion divorce. In that case “immorality” v.3 (pornei,a) should be rendered as
“unlawful marriage”, and “this matter” v.6 (evn tw/| pra,gmati) as “lawsuit”. The
expression to. e`autou/ skeu/oj kta/sqai, v.4 (NVg “suum vas possidere”) can
mean both “to acquire a wife to himself” and “to control one’s body”.
Exegesis of 4:13–5:11 (Resurrection and Parousia): Timothy reported to Paul that the
Thessalonians feared that their dead relatives and friends would miss out on the second
coming of Christ, and that the Thessalonians were running a high parousiac fever in the
belief that the second coming was due to take place in a very short time. Paul deals with the
first problem in 4:13-18, and with the second in 5:1-11. The cause of both problems was a
misunderstanding of his own preaching about an imminent Parousia, cf. 1 Thess 4:15; 1 Cor
15:51; Phil 1:23f; 3:20f; 2 Cor 5:1-10; 2 Thess 2:1-3.
Resurrection: The earliest Christians (including Paul himself?) expected the second coming
of Christ to take place within the short span of their own lifetime. The corrective influence
of time and the reaction of all four Gospels softened this expectation but never quite
removed it (cf. the apocalyptic discourses in Mt 24; Mk 13; Lk 21). Jewish theories of the
time held that with the advent of the Messiah there would also come the end of the world.
Apocalyptic writers harangued their readers about the imminence of the end of the old
world, the advent of the new age, the resurrection of the dead, the coming of the Messiah
and of the reign of God. These theories and the apocalyptic atmosphere in which they
flourished influenced Paul and the early Christians. The Messiah had indeed come. He had
risen from the dead, the Reign of God had arrived! It was only a matter of time, therefore,
before God would complete His definitive conquest of the forces of evil in the world. Then
all who believed in Jesus Christ would share with Him in the resurrection and in the
glorious victory of the Kingdom. It is in the light of such thinking that 4:13-18 should be
interpreted:
4:13: Rhetorical disclaimer (cf. 4:9; 5:1; 1 Cor 12:1): "we do not want you to be in
ignorance". The Thessalonians thought they were to live to see the Second Coming of Christ
in their own time. Since some among them had recently died, they were profoundly grieved,
11
thinking their loved ones would never witness the Parousia. Paul condemns their
immoderate sorrow only.
4:14: The proof for the resurrection of the dead is to be found in Jesus rising from
the dead, who is the head of the Body.
4:15: A doctrine communicated directly by Christ Himself, evn lo,gw|
kuri,ou; the Apostle is speaking rhetorically in the first person plural: he is not to be
understood as including himself and his companions among those witnessing the Parousia.
That he had no intention of teaching the imminent advent of Christ is clear from 5:2; 2
Thess 2:1ff (cf. Mt 13:32ff; Acts 1:6ff), cf. all Greek and Latin Fathers, St. THOMAS
AQUINAS, ESTIUS, and all the leading Catholic commentators21.
4:16: As Jesus ascended visibly into heaven, so shall He appear at the end of the
world (cf. Acts 1:11), as a general issuing orders (ke,leusma) to His troops. Expressions
to be understood figuratively, as Paul uses eschatological language common among the
Jews, and employed by Christ: evn sa,lpiggi qeou/, the trumpet appears in OT
contexts of theophanies (Exo 19:19; 20:18; Hb 12:19; Rev 1:10), of the exodus encampment
(Num 10:2-8), of liturgies (Lev 23:24; 25:9; Psa 81:3; Joel 2:15), of battle (Josh 6:5.20 [fall
of Jericho]; Zeph 1:16), of dynastic proclamations (1Kgs 1:34), of divine praise (Psa 47:5;
150:3), of warning (Eze 33:3), and of eschatological judgment (Joel 2:1; Mt 24:31; 1 Cor
15:52). By "rise first" (avnasth,sontai prw/ton) is not meant that the resurrection
of the just will precede the general resurrection (about which he is not talking), but that the
resurrection of those just will be prior to the transformation of the saints who are living at
that time.
4:17: Paul says plainly that those saints who are alive at the time of the Parousia will
not die, but will be transformed and taken (a`rpaghso,meqa lit. caught up, carry off,
snatch up/away, seize; cf. 2 Cor 12:2; Rev 12:5; Mt 24:40f), together with the righteous
dead already raised to life, into glory with Christ (see the Greek Fathers), cf. 1 Cor 15:51; 2
Cor 5:4. "We who are alive", as in v.15, refers not to Paul and his companions, but to those
just who will be living when Jesus comes in glory. As Jesus ascended into heaven
enveloped in a cloud (Acts 1:9), and as He shall come again in the clouds of heaven (Mt
24:30), so the just at the end of the world shall be transported by supernatural power beyond
the clouds to meet Him in His regal majesty, and with Him enter into glory for evermore.
From the NVg “rapiemur” came the idea of “the rapture”, when believers will be transported
away from the woes of the world, combining this verse with Mt 24:40f and Rev.
Parousía: Behind the inordinate sorrow of the Thessalonians over their dead lay their false
notion of the imminence of the Parousia. Paul, therefore, now reminds them of the teaching
of the Lord Himself regarding the uncertainty of that event.
5:1: "times" (cro,nwn length of time) and "seasons" (kairw/n period of time),
stereotypical expression parallel to "the day of the Lord", v.2; cf. Dan 2:21; 7:12; Wis 8:8,
characterizing the temporal schema of the end-time (Acts 1:7; Mt 24:36; Mk 13:32).
5:2: They had been well instructed on these points by Paul. "The day of the Lord"
(h`me,ra kuri,ou), a familiar OT and Pauline expression signaling the visitation of
21
In fact, to imply that St. Paul was in error in this matter would destroy the nature of divine
inspiration and Biblical inerrancy; see decision of the PONTIFICAL BIBLICAL COMMISSION on this
subject: June 18, 1915.
12
Christ judging the world22. His coming will take place suddenly and unexpectedly, cf. Mt
24:43; Lk 12:39f.
5:3: "They", i.e., the unbelieving.
5:4-5: Baptism has made them children of light; no need to fear the suddenness of
the Lord's coming.
5:6-7: "Therefore" introduces with emphasis the conclusion to be drawn from what
has just been said: vigilance is required.
5:8: Paul passes from the metaphor of the light to that of the armor of the soldier (cf.
Eph 6:11-17), speaking of two defensive-protective arms, the breastplate (qw,rax) and the
helmet (perikefalai,a), likening them to the virtues of faith, hope and charity as
foundation of the Christian life.
5:9-10: "whether we be alert or asleep", i.e., whether we be living or dead at the time
of the Parousia, we shall be Christ's. The one thing that matters is to be at all times one with
Christ.
5:11: Paul loves to praise his readers when they deserve it.
Paul did not share the common illusion concerning the Coming of the Lord. In principle,
though, there is nothing to prevent his having done so, for inspiration does not impart
universal knowledge and could not in any case give him the knowledge of the last day,
which the heavenly Father has reserved to Himself. Apart from the truth of which he is the
depositary, the sacred writer can be ignorant, hesitate, base an opinion on probabilities or
likelihoods, and set out in search of the truth by using the means which all men have at their
disposition. The essential thing is that he should not teach error. Paul, knowing better than
anyone that the date of the last day by no means forms the object of the revelation, does not
teach that the world is about to end, he declares solemnly that the consummation of things is
not imminent; but for wont of special light on the subject, he abides by the statement of the
Gospel. Nevertheless, he does seem to look forward to a long series of centuries.
vv.19-21: Paul’s buoyant encouragement of charismatic freedom sometimes
occasioned excesses that he or others had to remedy (cf. 1 Cor 14:2; 2 Thess 2:1-15; 2Pt
3:1-16).
v.23: He is not offering an anthropological or philosophical analysis of human nature
(to. pneu/ma kai. h` yuch. kai. to. sw/ma). Rather, he looks to the
wholeness of what may be called the supernatural and natural aspects of a person’s service
of God.
v.26: The “holy embrace/kiss” (evn filh,mati a`gi,w|, see Rom 16:16; 1
Cor 16:20; 2 Cor 13:12; 1Pt 5:14) was a greeting of respect and affection, perhaps given
during a liturgy at which Paul’s letter would have been read.
VI. The Second Letter to the Thessalonians, 51 A.D. (from Corinth, 2nd journey)
22
Formulaic expression employed by Amos (5:18-20) to speak of the day of judgment; by Joel for
the day of deliverance (2:32).
13
A more impersonal tone and changed circumstances are suggested. Traditionally
written shortly after 1 Thess. Chapter two is notoriously difficult, the heart of the letter. The
epistolary structure is as follows:
I. Address, 1:1-12
II. Warning against deception concerning the Parousia, 2:1-17
III. Concluding exhortations, 3:1-16
IV. Final greetings, 3:17-18
1:3-12: Paul’s gratitude in vv.3-5 contrasts with the condemnation announced in vv.610. A prayer completes the section, vv.11-12. Kata. th.n ca,rin tou/ qeou/
h`mw/n kai. kuri,ou VIhsou/ Cristou/ in v.12 can be translated in two
ways: (a) “the grace of our God and Lord Jesus Christ”; (b) “the grace of our God and of the
Lord Jesus Christ”.
Exegesis of 2:1-12 (The Signs of the Lord's Coming): The Thessalonians have been
shaken by a message purporting to come from Paul himself. They must not be disturbed
about the Parousia, for certain signs, yet far off, must precede that grand event. There must
first come a great religious revolt, and then the man of sin, Antichrist, must appear. This
mystery of iniquity is already at work, but something holds back the full exercise of his
power. He shall eventually be conquered by Christ (who had manifested himself from the
beginning, whereas the evil one will be revealed only at the end), but he will first show great
signs and wonders and seduce many. The overall point is the need to reject such lies as
Satan sends. Paul’s descriptions are very cautious and cryptically veiled to prevent
Christians from being persecuted by the current political powers.
2:1-2: Referring to the reunion of the living and the dead at the coming of Christ at
the end of the world, cf. 1 Thess 4:17; 5:10. The Thessalonians should not lose their sober
judgment. "By spirit", by any pretended revelation or prophesy attributed to the Holy
Spirit23; "nor by word", any teaching of the Apostle misinterpreted or falsely attributed to
him; "nor by epistle", any spurious letter circulated in the name of Paul (reason of his
practice of concluding a genuine epistle with a summary note and greeting in his own hand,
cf. Gal 6:11-8 and elsewhere). None of these sources of error should lead them to think the
Second Advent is upon them.
2:3: Apostasi,a, i.e., apostasy or religious defection, falling away from God; it
will be the first of the great events that shall precede the Parousia. Paul, becoming absorbed
in a description of the "man of sin", forgets to complete his sentence (something like "... the
Day of the Lord will not come"): an ellipsis.
"The man of lawlessness24" (a;nqrwpoj th/j avnomi,aj), i.e., the second
event is the man of sin, to be identified with Antichrist (cf. Isa 11:4; traces are taken from
Dan 11:36 [Antiochus Epiphanes]), whose other-world character is obvious from the fact
that he is to be "revealed". He is described: (a) as to his nature (lawless, sinful), (b) as to his
23
A pseudo-charismatic utterance, an allusion to Dionysiac seizures in vv.6-8? See the mention of
witchcraft (baskai,nein) in Gal 3:1.
24
Semitism; see also Ps 31:5; Rom 6:19.
14
fate (perdition25), (c) as to his ambition (to take the place of God, being worshipped, cf. v.4).
This impersonation and personification of sin and godlessness is an emissary of Belial or
Satan, cf. v.9.
N.B.: "The Antichrist (avnti,cristoj)", the term, which can mean either "one
who opposes Christ" or "one who replaces Christ", occurs only in 1 Jn 2:18.22; 4:3; 2 Jn 7,
but a similar expression "pseudo-Christs" (yeudo,cristoi) is found in Mt 24:11-24; Mk
13:21f; Acts 20:29f. Paul refers to the same figure under different terms, 2 Thess 2:3-8: "the
falling away" (avpostasi,a), "the lawless one" (a;nqrwpoj th/j avnomi,aj),
"the son of perdition" (ui`o.j th/j avpwlei,aj), see also 2 Tim 4:1ff.; 2 Pt 3:3.
The Apocalypse of John uses again another terminology: "the beast" (qhri,on), Rev 11:7;
13:1ff.; 17:7-1426. The author refers, therefore, to a conception known to his readers as part
of the common primitive Christian revelation. To what extent he has modified or interpreted
this notion, if he has done so, cannot be determined. Although Paul appears to speak of a
single eschatological Antichrist, his meaning is not certain, especially in view of the fact
that his descriptive language is largely borrowed from OT types (Eze 28:2; Dan 11:36;
Leviathan [Job 3:8; 41:1; Psa 74:14; 104:26; Isa 27:1]; Behemoth [Job 40:15]; serpent [Gen
3:1]; sea monster [Gen 1:21; Mt 12:40]; Gog & Magog [Eze 38], etc.). The figure in the
Synoptics and Apc certainly implies a collectivity of persons. "Many antichrists have
arisen", 1 Jn 2:18b, whether the author is reinterpreting or merely reproducing the common
Christian belief, it is clear that by "antichrist" he understands any and all of the false
teachers who afflict the Church in this "last hour". Jn seems to share the persuasion of the
early Church that the time of the parousia would not be long in coming. However, he is less
concerned with the parousia than with the present state of the Church, which, whatever its
prolongation, is a period of anticipation in which the last times have already begun (cf. Jn
4:23; 5:25).
2:4: The object of his opposition will be Christ27. This His archfiend will deny the
true God and spurn the idols, so as to appropriate all worship to himself28. "Taking his seat
in God's temple" expresses the general usurpation of divine adoration and honor (see Eze
28:2) on the part of Antichrist (cf. Dan 7:23-25; 8:9-12; 9:27; 11:36-37; 12:11, about
Antiochus IV Epiphanes). Human self-assertiveness against God and His Temple finds its
climactic action in him.
2:5: The anacóluthon (incomplete sentence) of vv.3b-5 recalls an apocalyptic
scenario depicted in terms borrowed especially from Dan 11:36f.
2:6-7: Obscure explanation (because the Apostle supposes his readers to be familiar
with previous instructions) of what holds back the Antichrist, consequently the dawn of the
Last Day. “What is restraining (v.6 to. kate,con, present participle neuter)” or “the
one who restrains (v.7 o` kate,cwn, present participle masculine)”, neuter and
masculine respectively, of a force (Roman empire? Cosmic/angelic powers? the preaching
25
Cf. the final damnation of the Antichrist in Jo 17:12.
The apocalyptic beast (the servant of the dragon) is a tetramorph, and thus a parody of the true
tetramorph of the evangelists.
27
Bringing Isa 11:8 to an eschatological fulfillment: the mystery of the incarnation was Christ
putting his hand into the adder’s den.
28
See parallels with Antiochus Epiphanes (Dan 11:36f) who attempted to set up a statue of Zeus in
the Jerusalem temple (the Roman emperor Caligula tried a similar thing), with the prince of Tyre (Ez
18:2), with the king of Babylon (Isa 14:13f).
26
15
of the Gospel?) or a person (Roman emperor, in Paul’s day Nero? Holy Spirit? Michael
Archangel29? Paul himself?) holding back the lawless one (cf. Rom 13:1-7). The "mystery
of iniquity" is the Antichrist himself operating in secret30, restrained (kate,con) by whom
or what?
2:8-12: Paul speaks of the coming of Antichrist, of his malevolent works, and of the
reason why God will permit him so to harass the world. The action of the Lord in
overcoming the lawless one is described in OT language: avnelei/ tw/| pneu,mati
tou/ sto,matoj auvtou/ (Isa 11:4; Jb 4:9; Rev 19:15). The biblical concept of the
“holy war”, eschatologically conceived, may underlie the imagery. In v.9 the Apostle
returns to describe the coming and working of Christ's archenemy (cf. v.8a). He will be
Satan's instrument to seduce and entice the world31. The final reason is given: that all may
be condemned who have preferred iniquity to the truth of the Gospel. According to Rom
1:24-28 sin leads in its train its own punishment. God employs Satan and Antichrist as
instruments to that effect.
3:6: Some members of the community, probably because they regarded the parousia
as imminent (cf. 2:2), had apparently ceased to work for a living. The disciplinary problem
they posed could be rooted in Paul’s own teaching (cf. 1 Thess 2:16; 3:3-4; 5:4-5) or, more
likely, in a forged letter and the type of teaching dealt with in 2:1-15. The apostle’s own
moral teaching, reflected in his selfless labors for others, stemmed from a doctrinal concern
for the Gospel message (cf. 1 Thess 2:3-10).
How eschatology-oriented Christianity was in its beginnings can be derived from the
fact that the NT begins with Paul’s Apocalypse (1/2 Thess) and closes with the great
Apocalypse of John.
VII. The First Letter to the Corinthians, 56 A.D. (from Ephesus, 3rd journey)
Corinth becomes the mother-church of Greece, Acts 18:1-18. Paul had received
disquieting news about the Corinthian community. Unhappily, four core groups crystallize
after Paul’s departure, displaying open factionalism: (i) Apollo, an Alexandrian teacher
drew crowds by his preaching; (ii) Judeo-Christians pretending to be in touch with Peter and
diminishing Paul’s authority; (iii) others turned to Christ himself rejecting any human
mediation; (iv) and those that adhered to Paul’s teaching. Paul writes 1 Cor to restore order
in the community, as well as to respond to the questions addressed to him. Written in
Ephesus (1 Cor 16:8), towards the end of his stay there, 55-56 A.D.
On four occasions Paul refers to his letter as "writing" (4:14; 5:11; 9:15; 14:37): his
purpose is clearly admonitory. It is a plea for the unity of the community, cf. 1:10. He wrote
at least two other letters to that city (5:9; 2 Cor 3-4) in addition to 2 Cor.
29
Cf. Rev 12:7-9; 20:1-3.
His means of operation are doubtless through heresies, errors, persecutions, and the like, which are
but the preparation for his unbridled reign.
31
V.9: a miracle is said to be a "power" (du,namij), when considered as to its origin or cause; it is
a "sign" (shmei/on), when considered as to its purpose; it is a "wonder" (te,raj), when
considered as to its extraordinary nature, which excites the admiration of men.
30
16
Stylistic feature: Use of chiastic presentations in a familiar A-B-A' pattern on the
micro (sentence) and macro (epistolary units) level to provide his argument with verve and
emphasis. Chiasms are recognized by the phenomenon of inclusio, the literary device of ring
construction, in which the final element of the disquisition corresponds to the first. Use of
digression in support of his arguments. The letter is composed in the deliberative mode of
rhetoric.
Problems at Corinth: Paul had information from Chloe (1:11), from a community
letter written to him (7:1ff), and from three visitors from that city (16:15-18). The
community was breaking into rival factions, extolling individual teachers whose words were
becoming more important than Christ, cf. 1:10–4:21.
In chs.5-6 he deals with some scandalous behavior, condoned by the community;
Christians bringing other Christians before pagan courts; fornication. In chs.7-15, Paul gives
solutions to problems presented to him in a letter: on marriage, sexuality, celibacy (ch.7),
eating meat sacrificed to idols (chs.8-10), women's dress (11:1-16), Eucharist (11:17-34);
charismatic gifts were more highly prized than works of charity (chs.12-14), resurrection
(ch.15).
Corinth: Two urban periods: i) Greek city-state from 5th cent. BC, destroyed by the
Roman Consul Lucius Mummius in 146 BC, ii) Roman city founded in 44 BC by Julius
Caesar. Archeology attests to various pagan cults (Dionysius, Isis, Demeter, Persephone,
Asklepios, Poseidon, Apollo and Hermes). Paul's visit to Corinth is recorded in Acts 18:118 (ca. 42 BC).
Epistolary structure:
Introduction (1:1-9): Greeting and thanksgiving,
Part I (1:10–4:21): Teachers and the cross as true wisdom
A (1:10–2:5): The problem: teachers, the cross, wisdom
B (2:6-16): Digression: mature Christians understand wisdom
A' (3:1–4:21): Advice concerning teachers
Part II (5:1–6:20): Scandals in the community
A (5:1-13): Sexual immorality
B (6:1-11): Lawsuits among Christians
A' (6:12-20): Sexual immorality
Part III (7:1–14:40): Paul's reply to the Corinthians' letter
(1) (7:1-40): Celibacy and the Christian life
A (7:1-16): Marriage, celibacy, and divorced Christians
B (7:17-24): A general rule for all
A' (7:25-40): Practical advice concerning celibacy
(2) (8:1–11:1): Freedom, conscience, and meat sacrificed to idols
A (8:1-13): The problem: eating idolatrous food
B (9:1–10:22): Apparent digressions
A' (10:23–11:1): Practical solution to the idol food problem
(3) (11:2-16): Men's and women's hairstyles
(4) (11:17-34): Community and the Eucharist
17
A (11:17-22): The Lord's supper is ignored
B (11:23-26): 'Remembrance' of Jesus' death
A' (11:27-34): The solution of the problem
(5) (12:1–14:40): Charismatic gifts and the community
A (12:1-31): Criteria for evaluating the gifts
B (13:1-13): Digression: Love is the fundamental criterion
A' (14:1-40): Practical advice for charismatics
Part IV (15:1-53): The resurrection
Part V (16:1-24): The collection, travel plans, farewell greetings
1:1-9: Nine references to the Lord Jesus Christ, principle of unity of the Church.
1:10-4:21: The first challenge Paul adresses is that of divisions within the community,
tracing them back to a false self-image on the part of the Corinthians, coupled with a false
understanding of the apostles who preached to them and of the Christian message itself.
Paul, having suffered a humiliating setback on the Areopagus in Athens, Acts 17, is now
proposing the science of the Cross as God’s wisdom in this world, 1 Cor 1:17 - 3:4; he no
longer advocates any “show of oratory or philosophy”, 1 Cor 2:1.
1:12: Kephas (i.e., “the Rock”, Paul’s favorite name for Peter, cf. 3:22 9:5; 15:5; Gal
1:18; 2:9.11.14) may well have passed through Corinth baptizing some members there.
2:7-10a: God’s wisdom is his plan for our salvation, his own eternal secret that no one
else could fathom.
2:8: The “rulers of this age” are not only the political leaders of the Jews and Romans
but also the cosmic powers behind them (Eph 1:20-23; 3:10): they became the unwitting
executors of God’s design which paradoxically brings about their own conquest and
submission, 15:24-28.
3:1: Two concept clusters are employed to distinguish what later theology will call
‘natural’ and ‘supernatural’: “spiritual/fleshly”.
3:5-8: Paul generously acknowledges the labors of Apollos.
3:15: The Church has based her doctrine on purgatory on this verse (cf. 2 Macc 12:3946; 2 Tim 1:16-18).
4:9-13: A rhetorically effective catalogue of apostolic sufferings, in ironical contrast
with the Corinthians’ illusion that they have already reached the state of glory: an echo of
beatitudes and woes which assert a future reversal of fortune.
4:14-17: Tender metaphor of the father who not only gives his children life but also
educates them; in complementarity to the maternal metaphor in 1 Thess 2:7.
5:1–6:20: Paul now takes up other matters that require regulation. These have come to
his attention by hearsay, probably in reports brought by Chloe’s people, 1:11. He first deals
with the incestuous union of a man with his stepmother, 5:1-8.
5:5: The purpose of a person’s excommunication from the Church is remedial and
rehabilitative: through the punitive measure of bodily affliction (being consigned to Satan)
sin’s grip over him may be destroyed and the path to repentance and reunion laid open;
compare with note on reconciliation in 2 Cor 2:5-11.
18
5:7-8: A little Easter homily: In the Jewish calendar, Passover was followed
immediately by the festival of Unleavened Bread. In preparation for it all traces of old bread
were removed from the house, and during the feast only unleavened bread was eaten. The
sequence of these two feasts provides Paul with an image of Christian existence: Christ’s
death (true Passover celebration) is followed by the life of the Christian community, marked
by newness, purity and integrity (an ongoing feast of Unleavened Bread)32.
Exegesis of 6:1-11 (Lawsuits among Christians)33: Christians at Corinth are suing one
another before pagan judges in Roman courts. A barrage of rhetorical questions, vv.1-9,
betrays the Apostle’s indignation over this practice, which he sees as an infringement upon
the holiness of the Christian community. Judgment is the primary focus of ch. 5 (cf. 5:5; 1
Tim 1:20; 1 Pt 4:6). Paul's remarks about judging in 5:12f remind him of another scandal in
the community. The judicial language makes this digression a natural continuation of ch. 5.
Two lines of thought: i) Christians ought to be able to settle their disputes among
themselves, vv.1-6; ii) they should not have any disputes of such a nature as to be subject to
civil litigation, vv.7-8. Verses 6 and 8 are the respective climaxes. Thematic development in
nine rhetorical questions. The use of contrast (vv.3-4, 7-8, 9-11) and direct address give
added force to the argument:
6:1: The judgment theme emerges already in the preceding context, 5:12-13. The
Corinthians not only have grievances against each other34 but they are taking them before
civil courts for adjudication35. Ideally there should be no serious disputes between the
members of the community. Paul, however, is a realist, and the Corinthians are far from
perfect. But the least they can do is settle their disputes among themselves 36. The scandals
of the community should not be made known to those who do not share the faith37.
6:2-6: The principle to which Paul appeals in vv.2-3 is an eschatological prerogative
promised to Christians: they are to share with Christ the judgment of the world (cf. Dan
7:22.27). In apocalyptic literature, those (the saints) who belong to the forces of good (God's
army) will judge the forces of evil at the last judgment, cf. v.2. They will even judge the
rebellious angels, v.338. Paul cites this popular concept to make his point in vv.4-6, that
“Leaven” is a biblical symbol both for sin and sinlessness, depending on the context.
Widely regarded as an embryonic point of departure for our present Code of Canon Law,
eloquently promulgated on the feast of St. Paul’s conversion, January 25th, 1983.
34
"Having an issue against another" (pra/gma e;cwn pro.j to.n e[teron) suggests a
hostile or adversarial relationship related to some particular matter.
35
One can presume that justice was administered like in other cities of the Roman Empire with its
powerful patronage system (unfavorable to people of lower social classes): the Governor himself
heard the more important cases. Ordinary civil cases were heard by the duoviri, two citizens
appointed to the magistrature. Aediles heard cases pertaining to business and the agora.
36
Paul denounces the failure to maintain their integrity as God's holy people: within Israel there had
been a long tradition of administration of Justice, cf. Ex 18:21-27. In the biblical tradition "to judge"
(kri,nw) is to be partial, i.e., to take care of the innocent and the oppressed and to punish the
wicked.
37
"Before unjust persons" (evpi. tw/n avdi,kwn) suggests an appeal to the courts, evoking
the legal setting of a case being heard before a judge. There is sufficient evidence of judicial
corruption in the Roman world to ascribe "unjust" its proper sense.
38
Some authors find in this passage a reference to the book of Daniel's vision of the Son of Man, in
which judgment is given to the holy ones of the Most High, Dan 7:21f; cf. Wis 3:7-8. Later Jewish
32
33
19
there must be someone among them to judge internal39 cases40. They ought to settle minor
disputes within the community.
6:7-8: The defeat consists in their lack of understanding regarding the wisdom of the
cross (1 Cor 1-4; Rom 12:17.21; Mat 5:43). The norms of behavior for Christians are higher
than the norms of ethics. Paul suggests that it is preferable to be wronged and suffer some
loss than to appeal to the courts.
6:9-10: This catalogue/list (using polysyndeton for rhetorical effect) of unrighteous
sinners is similar to the one in 5:11, taking the Corinthians bluntly to task. The vices cited
generally pertain to issues with which Paul continues to be concerned throughout the letter.
The conduct described is typical of the "world", irreconcilable with the Kingdom of God.
Vices that exclude from the Kingdom should also exclude from God’s Church.
Catamites41 (malako,i), v.9, are adolescent prostitutes having sexual relationship
with a man, a practice not uncommon in the Greco-Roman world. The term “practicing
homosexual” (avrsenokoithj, sodomite, pederast), v.9, refers to adult males indulging
in homosexual practices with those boys; similar condemnations of homosexuality in Rom
1:26-27; 1 Tim 1:10.
6:11: When they accepted baptism ("were washed", avpelou,w) they committed
themselves to Christ's norms of behavior, separating them from the world ("sanctified",
a`gia,zw), and put in the right relationship with God ("justified", dikaio,w). The cultic
nuance of the phrase "in the name of the Lord Jesus Christ and in the Spirit of our God"
(evn tw/| ovno,mati tou/ kuri,ou VIhsou/ Cristou/ kai. evn
tw/| pneu,mati tou/ qeou/ h`mw/n) cannot be overlooked (cf. Ps 62:5; 104:3;
etc.). Paul, as is his custom, identifies o` Ku,rioj with Jesus Christ. With a paired
reference to Jesus Christ and to the Spirit of God he evokes the specificity of God's salvific
work on behalf of His people in Jesus Christ as well as the ongoing active presence of God
among them (note the trinitarian formula).
6:12-20: Paul now turns to the opinion of some Corinthians that sexuality is a
morally indifferent area, vv.12-13, which leads him to explain the profound theology of the
mutual relation between the Lord Jesus and our bodies.
6:19-20: The vision becomes trinitarian.
7:1-40: The Apostle now begins to answer questions addressed to him by the
community, 7:1–11:1. The first of these concerns marriage. Vv.1-16 contains advice to the
married, vv.25-38 to the unmarried, and vv.17-24 the enunciation of a principle applicable
to both.
7:1-16: Some were seemingly associating asceticism with sexual matters, seizing upon a
genuine value but exaggerating or distorting it in some way (kalo,j in v.1 may have been
the slogan of the ascetic party in Corinth).
writings commonly express a belief that God's people will participate in the final judgment (see Jub
24:29; 1Enoch 1:9; 1QH 4:26f; 1QpHab 5:4-5).
39
Community seen as coalesced by family ties (avdelfoi,).
40
An enthymeme: arguing a maiori ad minus (cf. Rom 5:6-9). There is a rhetorical klimax or
gradatio in his argument. Paul did not urge the Christians to establish a judicial system, however,
which would have required that they are recognized as a civil corporation (poli,teuma).
41
In Greek mythology this was a function of Ganymede, the cupbearer of the gods, whose Latin
name was Catamitus.
20
7:7: Use of the term ca,risma suggests that marriage and celibacy may be viewed in
the light of Paul’s theology of spiritual gifts, chs. 12-14!
7:10-11: He reminds the married of Christ’s law of non-separation, Mk 10:9, one of the
rare specific references to the teaching of Jesus.
7:15-16: Pauline Privilege, cf. CODE OF CANON LAW 1983, cann. 1143-1147.
7:25-38: On Virginity: while Paul praises marriage as a Christian mystery in Eph 5, here
he seems to counter a sectarian opinion that condemns those who remain unmarried. In
order to introduce the virginal state of life into the Church, he hyperbolizes his discourse to
overcome the global cultural disadvantage of ignorance concerning celibacy in the ancient
world.
7:17-24: Particular human conditions are less significant than the whole new existence
opened up by God’s call; Paul urges them to be less concerned with changing their states of
life than with answering God’s call where it finds them, a rule applicable both to the
married, vv.1-16, and to the unmarried, vv.25-38.
8:1–11:1: The Corinthians’ second question relates to meat that has been sacrificed to
idols. They were exhibiting a disordered sense of liberation that was in need of rectification.
Essentially he urges them to take a communitarian rather than an individualistic view of
their Christian freedom. Moral decisions must be based also on concrete circumstances, on
the needs and values of others in mutual responsibility within the church. Paul here
introduces the theme of “building up” (oivkodomh,), i.e., of contributing by personal
action to the welfare and growth of the community, a thought further developed in ch.14.
Several years later the Apostle would again deal with idolatrous meat in Rom 14:1–15:6.
8:6: A rephrased monotheistic confession, cf. v.4, in contrast to polytheism in v.5.
9:1-27: An emotional expansion of Paul’s appeal to his own example in 8:13. The
language is highly rhetorical, abounding in questions, wordplays, parardoxes, images,
repetitions, inclusions, and appeals to authority and experience.
9:5: Unusual designation avdelfh.n gunai/ka, “sister woman/wife”; allusion to
early apostolic celibacy in a brother-sister relationship?
9:15-18: Personal motive for Paul’s nonuse of his right to support; material is similar to
his apologia in 2 Cor 11:5-12; 12:11-18.
9:24-27: A series of mini-parables from sports, appealing to readers familiar with Greek
gymnasia and the nearby Isthmian games.
10:1-5: Paul embarks unexpectedly upon a panoramic survey of the events of the
Exodus period. The privileges of Israel in the wilderness are described in terms that apply
strictly only to the new covenant (baptism, spiritual food and drink), pointing forward to the
Christian experience. Remarkable contrast between five pa,ntej (NVg omnes) in vv.1-4
and avllV ouvk evn toi/j plei,osin (NVg sed non in pluribus) in v.5.
10:4: Exodus speaks only about a rock from which water issued, but rabbinic legend
amplified this into a spring that followed the Israelites throughout their migration. Paul
makes the rock itself accompany the Israelites giving it a typologico-spiritual meaning: the
rock is Christ (Dt 32 asserts that YHWH is the rock of his people), the true source of living
water (cf. Jn 7:38).
21
10:6-13: An explication of the typological meaning of the above events: they are meant
as warnings to deter us from similar sins (idolatry, immorality, etc.).
10:14-22: All sacrifices, Christian (vv.16-17), Jewish (v.18), or pagan (v.20), establish
communion; but communion with Christ excludes from any other such communion, v.21.
Although Jews denied divinity to pagan gods, they often believed that there some nondivine reality behind the idols, such as the dead, or angels, or demons (Dt 32:7).
11:2–14:40: This section is dedicated to regulating conduct at the liturgy. Paul handles
the problem of women’s decorum, 11:3-16, improprieties in the celebration of the agape,
11:17-34, and the use of charisms, chs.12-14.
11:3-16: Head-covering was normal in Greek society of the time. Paul’s statement tries
to bring them back into conformity with contemporary custom and propriety. V.3 clarifies
the hierarchical structure (cf. Eph 5:21-33). This hybrid model grafts unto a theological
scale (cf. 3:21-23) the hierarchy of sociosexual relations prevalent in the ancient world:
men, dominant, reflect the active function of Christ’s headship over the Church; women,
submissive, mirror the passive role of the Church regarding the Savior. The functional scale
is: God, Christ, man, woman.
11:7-9: expresses the hierarchy in other metaphors: the image and reflected glory,
alluding to Gen 1:27. Gen 1:24 is understood here in the light of the second creation
narrative in Gen 2, in which man and woman are created separately (from man and for him),
and under the influence of the story of original sin, as a result of which the husband rules
over the woman, Gen 3:16. This interpretation splits the single image of God into two at
different degrees of closeness.
11:10: When commenting on Paul, Irenaeus substitutes evxousi,a for ka,lumma,
relating the text to ‘veiling’. Exousia42 means power and authority: by metonymy, the
woman expresses her subordination to man by wearing a veil (cf. v.9). The gender
distinctions between men and women are both overcome through a realized eschatology but
also maintained as the cosmic dimensions of God’s victory in Christ are worked through.
The sign of that is not that everyone ends up looking the same, but that women’s authority is
to be marked by customary decorum. Exousia here may also mean the woman’s authority to
take her prophetic place in the cultic activities of the community. The surprising addition
“because of the angels” is not clarified by the context: presumably it refers to cosmic
powers who might inflict harm on women or whose function is to watch over women or
liturgies43.
11:11-12: These parenthetical remarks relativize the argument from Gen 2-3. In the
Christian economy the relation between man and woman is characterized by a mutual
dependence not further specified; even in the natural order conditions have changed: the
mode of origin in Gen 2 (woman from man) has been reversed (man from woman).
Ultimately all have a common origin, v.12b.
Exegesis of 11:17-34 (The Lord's supper; vv.17-22 Agape; 23-26 Institution account; 27-34
Judgment):
Possibly due to mistranslation of an Aramaic word for ‘veil’.
A certain reflection of this apostolic directive can be discerned in the veil of religious sisters and
in the skullcap of bishops until today.
42
43
22
A) 11:17-22: In accordance with and in remembrance of the Lord’s Jewish Passover
meal on Holy Thursday the early Christians had the postmeridian or vespertine celebration
of the Eucharist preceded by a love meal (avga,ph): A communal meal was the deepest
expression of fraternal love among semites. Paul's refusal to commend the Corinthians
concerning this agápe (vv.17.22; cf. 11:2) makes a literary unit of this section by means of
the device of inclusio, and underscores the severity of his judgment.
His information is that there occurred not only divisions (sci,smata, ai`re,seij)
in the community (evkklhsi,a), v.18, but that when they meet for the Eucharist, they are
not eating the Lord's supper (fa,gein kuriako.n dei/pnon), but rather, in their
avid concern44 for eating the common meal that was part of the Lord's supper 45, they are
ignoring both the poor and the Eucharist itself, vv.19-22. The staccato series of five
rhetorical questions (second and third joined) creates a strong appeal in v.22. Twofold fault:
i) the desecration of the Eucharist, ii) a blatant factionalism that gives the lie to the unity the
Lord's supper is meant to signify, and embarrasses the poor. Before giving a practical
solution, vv.27-34, Paul first deals with the theological significance of the Eucharist, vv.2326.
B) 11:23-26: The exegetical difficulties of this section on the Eucharistic tradition
have exercised commentators for centuries. Paul argues that the Eucharist was instituted to
emphasize the significance of the death of Jesus. To explain46 what he means by the
Eucharist and why the Corinthians' individual meals are not the Lord's supper, he cites an
early Christian tradition (cf. 10:16-21). In his rhetoric the narration functions as a cultic
etiology: referring to the origins of eucharistic practices and providing a basis for reflection
on the actual practice47.
11:23-26 contains the oldest literary account of the Last Supper, antedating the
letter, and previously shared with the Corinthian Christians, v.23a. The terminology
"received" (pare,labon) and "handed on" (pare,dwka) implies authority and
faithfulness (cf. 1 Cor 15:3)48. The recitative o[[ti suggests that the unit of vv.23-26 had a
life of its own prior to its incorporation into Paul's letter. It appears to be older than the
narrative versions in the synopsis (Mt 26:26-28; Mk 14:22-24; Lk 22:19-20).
Paul's account is closer to the Lukan one: i) mentioning euvcaristh,saj with
regard to the bread; ii) both authors provide a clarifying "that is for your sake" (to.
u`pe.r u`mw/n); iii) both have the anamnesis49 formula "do this in reminiscence of me"
(tou/to poiei/te eivj th.n evmh.n avna,mnhsin); iv) the reference to the
"His or her own" (e[[kastoj ga.r to. i;dion), v.21, provides a sharp antithesis with
"the Lord's supper" in v.20.
45
"Take by preference" (prolamba,nei), v.21, may mean starting to eat before the others do (cf.
temporal aspect of the prepositional prefix pro-); unlike Gal 6:1.
46
See postpositive in ga,r v.23.
47
As a point of interest: the only eucharistic prayer not containing the institution account ad litteram
is the very ancient Holy Qurbana of Addai and Mari (East Syrian liturgical family, stemming from
Edessa, 3rd century). The Holy See considers this anaphora valid (cf. 20 July 2001 declaration).
48
"For I received from the Lord what I have also handed on to you": reflects the technical language
of Jewish rabbinic tradition, where it bespeaks the authoritative and accurate handing on of halakah.
49
Cf. Jewish leZikkarón: to remember (Hebrew zakár rkz) God's saving events in the past is to
remember God Himself and remind Him of His covenant.
44
23
"new covenant50 in My blood" (h` kainh. diaqh,kh evsti.n evn tw/|
evmw/| ai[mati); v) placing the cup "similarly ... after the meal" (meta. to.
deipnh/sai). None of these five traits is to be found in the Matthean-Markan account of
the supper.
The eucharistic celebration proclaims the salvific event of Jesus' death (cf. 2:8),
including the resurrection (hence the Kyrios title and the reference to the parousia, cf.
16:22). That both, the bread ritual and the cup ritual took place together, and that both
occurred after the formal meal had been completed seems to be suggested by "similarly"
(w`sau,twj), 11:25a51. The ritual sequence of taking bread, giving thanks (offering praise
in Mt and Mk), breaking the bread, and saying is found at the beginning of a Jewish meal,
when the presider would pronounce a blessing over a loaf of bread. The sharing of the
blessed and broken bread would symbolize that those who partook of the meal shared in the
blessing. Paul's joining together the eating of the bread and the drinking of the cup suggests
that they constitute a single liturgical gesture in two parts.
11:24: "This is my body" (Tou/to, mou, evstin to. sw/ma): The
Aramaic bisra (Hebrew basar), meaning "flesh", can be translated into Greek either by sarx
(flesh) or soma (body). Jesus' own Semitic words would have lacked a copula: "this, my
body". In cultic language hyper (u`ph,r) "for your sake", specifies the beneficiaries of the
sacrifice of dedication52.
11:25: The interpretive saying over the cup "this cup is the new covenant in my
blood" (cf. 1 Cor 10:16f), includes a reference to the blood of the covenant in Ex 24:3-8.
The shared cup is a covenantal ritual, in accordance with biblical tradition: Gen 14:18, 24;
26:26-33; 31:43-54; Ex 24:9-11; Josh 9:3-16. "In" reflects the Hebrew -b, and creates an
instrumental clause: the cup expresses the covenant, of which Jesus' blood is a sign and a
mediation.
11:26: The explanatory ga,r ("for") suggests that Paul knew of the traditional
eschatological saying that made a link between the eucharistic cup and the eschatological
banquet (Mt 26:29; Mk 14:25). His words confront what might be the Corinthians’ overly
emphasized eschatology and prepare for the theme of judgment that he will exploit in the
50
Cf. Jer 31:31.
Some authors take the phrase "the cup after the meal" as a reference to third Passover cup,
construing "after the meal" to be a prepositional attributive modifying "the cup". Both grammatical
and referential difficulties exist with regard to this interpretation. From a grammatical point of view
the prepositional clause is not introduced by an article, as it should be were it to modify the noun.
From a referential point of view Paul's narrative does not suggest that the tradition was that of a
Passover meal celebrated by the Lord. Along with the "you" of v.24, "after the meal" probably
should be taken as an element of historical anamnesis (cf. Mk 14:22-25; Lk 22:20).
52
The Greek manuscript tradition shows that "for your sake" demands an explanation. The
underlying Aramaic tradition of the bread word is more readily explicable than is its rendition in
51
Greek. The Codex Athous Lavrensis (Y) and correctors of such important majuscules as a, C, and D,
read the text with a clarifying "broken" (klw,menon), D with "broken in pieces"
(qrupto,menon), and the Coptic version with "given" (dido,menon, cf. Lk 22:19). "Broken" is
well attested in Syria and the East during the fourth cent. and is found in the great majority of Greek
mss. It probably best explains the other variants and suggests that it may have been omitted by some
scribes who found the notion of eating pieces of Jesus' fragmented body altogether harsh.
24
ensuing paraenetic exhortation. He would have the Corinthians know that the end has not
yet come.
C) 11:27-34: Paul's wording is sharp, the language judicial (avnaxi,wj,
"unworthily"; e;nocoj, "answerable"53); an inferential hóste (w[ste), "therefore" (cf.
v.33) draws a conclusion from what he wrote about the Eucharist in vv.23-26. Anyone who
partakes of it in an unseemly and unworthy manner merits the Lord's judgment and
punishment (vv.29, 34). This may be an instance of a sentence of holy law (cf. 3:17) used to
condemn conduct that is inimical to the well-being of the community, in an eschatological
context.
11:28: Paul's gender-inclusive a;nqrwpoj, "person", suggests a contrast between
the human and the divine (cf. 2:11-16). In the ensuing verses he speaks of the divine
judgment (vv.27-32); here he urges the Corinthians to an exercise in self-scrutiny54 (cf.
v.31) before sharing in the bread and in the cup: the recognition of the "body", v.2955.
11:29: Explanation56 why self-scrutiny (moral introspection) is essential: the
alternative is divine judgment. Failure to recognize the sw/ma brings an inherent system of
judgment upon oneself57.
11:30: The premise is that inappropriate behavior in a eucharistic context can lead to
weakness, sickness and death (klimax). Di,a tou/to, "That is why", seems to imply that
the cause of many illnesses and even deaths is the irreverence towards the Eucharist, which
would suggest that they were guilty of serious abuses58. By saying that the Corinthians'
misfortunes are a punishment from God, the Apostle is emphasizing that sacrilege and any
other irreverence towards the Eucharist is a very grave offense.
11:31: The intensive "really judge" (diekri,nomen) implies a process of
discernment. The apodosis has a passive voice, implying that the ultimate eschatological
judgment will come at the hands of the divine judge (passivum divinum).
11:32: The chastisement about which the Apostle writes is distinct from
condemnation (katakriqw,men).
53
This is primarily a judicial term (hapax in Paul), used in reference to the court, the punishment,
the crime, or the person against whom it is committed ("sin against the body and blood of the
Lord").
54
Dokimaze,tw means "to put to the test, to qualify, to examine, to test, to approve".
55
Quoted by the CATECHISM OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH, n. 1385: "To respond to this invitation [to
receive holy communion] we must prepare ourselves for so great and so holy a moment. St. Paul
urges us to examine our conscience. [...] Anyone conscious of a grave sin must receive the
sacrament of Reconciliation before coming to communion."
56
Note the explanatory ga,r.
To elucidate Paul's terse phraseology, some copyists (transcribing mss D, F, G, Y, a2, C3) have
added a qualifying "unworthily" (avnaxi,wj, cf. v.27) after the first reference to eating and
drinking. They have also added an interpretive "of the Lord" (tou/ Kuri,ou) to "the body". Both
additions are widely attested in the medieval textual tradition, but are absent from the most
important witnesses (P46, a, B).
58
Reflecting the popular Jewish notion that sickness and death are forms of punishment for sin (cf.
Mk 2:9; Jo 9:2, and Job).
57
25
11:33: Final exhortation linked to vv.17-22. The apostrophic vocative avdelfoi,
mou is characteristic of the parenesis of 1 Cor. The pronoun underscores the kinship bonds
evoked by Paul's vocative. As in earlier passages of the letter (cf. 6:5-8; 8:11-13) he implies
that socially discriminatory conduct is all the more egregious in that it is directed against
members of the family.
11:34: As is his wont, Paul incorporates casuistry ("if", ei;) into his admonition.
This conditional clause is an element of parenthetical casuistry similar to 7:15.21. The final
words (diata,xomai, "arrange carefully") remind the community that other through his
family ties, the Apostle has authority to give them instructions (cf. 4:19; 16:5-7).
The inference Paul draws from his reminder about the Eucharist is replete with
judicial language: unworthily, answerable, scrutinize, judgment, judge, chastise, condemn,
all belong to the semantic domain of the law. The literary device of paronomasia (repetition
of the same word stem in close proximity) enhances this atmosphere: six words derive from
the root krin-, krima, diakrinón, diekrínomen, ekrinómetha, krinómenoi, katakrithómen in
vv.29-32. Sharing in the Eucharist is the action to be judged. In fact there are two
judgments: one by those who eat and drink, and the other by the Lord.
Exegesis of 12:1–14:40 (Charismatic gifts and the community): Ecstatic and charismatic
activity were common in the infant Church, as they were in other ancient religions. But the
Corinthians appear to have developed a disproportionate esteem for certain phenomena,
especially tongues, to the detriment of order in the liturgy. Paul’s response provides us with
the fullest exposition of his theology of the charisms.
Paul's discussion of the charismatic gifts (pneumatika,) is arranged in an
exquisitely balanced chiastic format of three sections, each of which is further divided into
similarly balanced a-b-a' subsections:
A (ch.12:1-31) Criteria for evaluating the gifts
a One Spirit but many different gifts, 12:1-11
b One body but many different members, 12:12-26
a' The many different gifts in the one body, 12:27-31
B (ch.13) Apparent digression: Love is the fundamental criterion
a It is love alone that counts, 13:1-3
b It is love alone that triumphs, 13:4-7
a' It is love alone that endures, 13:8-13
A' (ch.14) Practical advice for charismatics
a Better to prophesy than to speak in tongues, 14:1-5
b Tongue-speaking does not build up the community, 14:6-25
a' Better to prophesy than to speak in tongues, 14:26-40
Advertence must be given to the fact that the Apostle is answering to those
charismatics who were either making too much of the gift of tongues or were exercising it in
such a way that they were disrupting the liturgical gatherings.
Aa (12:1-11) One Spirit but many different gifts:
12:1: The discussion starts with the word "concerning" (peri,, cf. 7:1.25; 8:1)
suggesting that he is replying to a question put to him by the Corinthians in their letter. The
26
question is anything but clear, but Paul's downgrading of the gift of tongues in ch.14 makes
is reasonably certain that the problem had a great deal to do with the gift and use of tonguespeaking in the community.
12:2: In the mystery cults of the pagans, individuals under the influence of
enthusiastic seizures might say almost anything, no matter how nonsensical and
blasphemous.
12:3: First principle for discerning the spiritual gifts. Is Paul using this curse as a
totally unreal example to serve as a contrast to the statement "Jesus is Lord"? Or are these
words backsliding Jewish Christians were compelled to pronounce if they wanted to recant
and return to the synagogue? Or is it a real expression characteristic of a Gnostic attitude
toward the humanity of Jesus?
12:4-11: The second principle deals with the origin and purpose of the gifts, v.7: to
each one (“unusquisque”, cf. 1 Cor 7:7) is given a manifestation of the Spirit (e`ka,stw|
de. di,dotai h` fane,rwsij tou/ pneu,matoj) for the common good
(pro.j to. sumfe,ron) or the upbuilding of the community59: 7e`ka,stw| de.
di,dotai h` fane,rwsij tou/ pneu,matoj pro.j to. sumfe,ronÅ 8
w-| me.n ga.r dia. tou/ pneu,matoj di,dotai lo,goj sofi,aj(
9
a;llw| de. lo,goj gnw,sewj kata. to. auvto. pneu/ma(
e`te,rw| pi,stij evn tw/| auvtw/| pneu,mati( a;llw| de.
cari,smata ivama,twn evn tw/| e`ni. pneu,mati( 10 a;llw| de.
evnergh,mata duna,mewn( a;llw| Îde.Ð profhtei,a( a;llw| Îde.Ð
diakri,seij pneuma,twn( e`te,rw| ge,nh glwssw/n( a;llw| de.
e`rmhnei,a glwssw/n. Paul stresses both unity (drawing attention to the Giver vs.
boasting of self-important charismatics) and diversity (many, not just a few, are given gifts
by the Spirit). The adroit use in vv.4-6 of "the same Spirit" (to. auvto. pneu/ma,
Holy Spirit), "the same Lord" (o` auvto.j ku,rioj, Jesus Christ), and "the same
God" (o` auvto.j qeo,j, God the Father) represents one of the earliest references to
the Trinity in the NT.
12:4-6: There are some features common to all charisms despite their diversity: all are
gifts (charismata), grace from outside ourselves; all are forms of service (diakonia), an
expression of their purpose and effect; all are workings (energémata) in which God is at
work. Paul associates each of these aspects with the Spirit (= Holy Spirit), the Lord (=
Christ), with God (the Father), an early example of trinitarian appropriation.
Ab (12:12-26) One body but many different members: the image of a body is introduced to
explain Christ’s relationship with believers, v.12; v.13 applies this to the Church as an
integrated organism of the baptized. Vv. 14-26 then develop the need for diversity of
function among the parts of a body without threat to its unity.
12:12-16: The third principle is that the community needs different charismatics to
function well, as is clarified by the metaphor of the body (me,lh – sw/ma)60. Paul's
underlying postulate is that all Christians are united as one body with Christ, because all of
59
See also 3:5-15; 8:1; 10:23; 14:3-5.12.17.26.
Utilized as early as 494 BC by Menenius Agrippa, who made use of it to convince the Roman
plebeians that their interests were the same as those of the patricians. Seneca, Epictetus, and the
Gnostics made use of the same metaphor.
60
27
them share in the life-giving power of the Spirit that comes from the Father through
Christ61.
12:17-26: Emphasis on the need in the body-community for many people with
different gifts (cf. vv.18-20), just as all the members of the body have need of one another
and work for the common good of it. Strong reprise of the teaching about service in chs.3-4.
Even the humblest members of the community have gifts and must be respected (vv.22-25).
There seems to have been factions of charismatics with flamboyant gifts (tongues and
prophecy) and those with less easily recognizable gifts.
Aa' (12:27-31) The many different gifts in the one body:
12:27: The deepest root of this surprising designation of the Church is the sacrament
of the Body of Christ, 1 Cor 10:16f; Eph 4:12; 5:30; Col 1:24.
12:28: Resumption of the enumeration of gifts mentioned in 12:4-11, and the
evaluation of them according to the criterion of communal edification (cf. 12:7): ai.
ou]j me.n e;qeto o` qeo.j evn th/| evkklhsi,a| prw/ton
avposto,louj( deu,teron profh,taj( tri,ton didaska,louj(
e;peita
duna,meij(
e;peita
cari,smata
ivama,twn(
avntilh,myeij( kubernh,seij( ge,nh glwssw/nÅ Prophets (profh,taj)
means those who encouraged, edified, comforted and inspired their fellow Christians by
speaking to them during their liturgical celebrations (inspirational preaching, cf. 14:3.6).
Remarkable is that the gift of tongues is given the last place on the list.
12:29-30: Concluding rhetorical questions, the answer to all is a resounding
negative. The primary purpose is to make the Corinthians recognize that many gifts are
necessary.
12:31: The Apostle is about to point out a more excellent way (kaqV
u`perbolh.n o`do.n). This verse constitutes the transition to ch.13, where he deals
with the ultimate criterion for evaluating the gifts.
B (13:1-13) Love is the fundamental criterion62:
This hymn to love, looking like an interpolation63, is a critically important part of the
argumentation in chs.12-14. It involves a shift of perspective and a new point; its function
61
Cf. 1:13; 3:16; 6:15; 10:17; Rom 12:1-8.
“Despite her inadequate training and lack of resources for studying and interpreting the sacred
books, Thérèse immersed herself in meditation on the Word of God with exceptional faith and
spontaneity. Under the influence of the Holy Spirit she attained a profound knowledge of Revelation
for herself and for others. By her loving concentration on Scripture - she even wanted to learn
Hebrew and Greek to understand better the spirit and letter of the sacred books - she showed the
importance of the biblical sources in the spiritual life, she emphasized the originality and freshness
of the Gospel, she cultivated with moderation the spiritual exegesis of the Word of God in both the
Old and New Testaments. Thus she discovered hidden treasures, appropriating words and episodes,
sometimes with supernatural boldness, as when, in reading the texts of St Paul (cf. 1 Cor 12-13), she
realized her vocation to love. Enlightened by the revealed Word, Thérèse wrote brilliant pages on the
unity between love of God and love of neighbour; and she identified with Jesus' prayer at the Last
Supper as the expression of her intercession for the salvation of all.” Blessed John Paul II, Divini
Amoris Scientia, 1997 (Proclamation of Therese de Lisieux as Doctor of the Church).
63
It is readily noticeable that if one eliminates the stitches in 12:31 and 14:1, the whole of ch.13
could be omitted without breaking the continuity between chs.12 and 14 (cf. 4:9-13).
62
28
within the discussion of spiritual gifts is to relativize all the charisms by contrasting them
with the more basic, pervasive and enduring value that gives them their purpose and
effectiveness.
Ba (13:1-3) It is love alone that counts:
13:1: The gift of tongues, mentioned last in 12:30, is first here because Paul wishes
to downplay it as much as possible (cf. 14:1ff). Love (avgaph,) is a share in God's being,
but also a virtue and a central charismatic gift.
13:2-3: Unlike the gift of tongues, the gift of prophecy is most helpful for building
up the community. Nevertheless, even this is nothing without love. Nothing can substitute
for love.
Bb (13:3-7) It is love alone that triumphs:
13:4-7: The description of love is based on the apostle’s understanding of Christ
Himself, his Sacred Heart Theology (cf. 1 Jn 4:8). Love cannot exist at all until it is given
because its givenness is its being.
Ba' (13:8-13) It is love alone that endures:
13:8-12: Conclusion similar to the beginning of the hymn: reference to the gifts. The
enduring existence of love contrasts with the ephemeral and passing existence of the gifts
(vv.8-10).
13:13: When the Corinthians have grown up spiritually, they will realize that the
gifts are transitory and that the essence of Christian life consists in faith, hope and love, the
greatest of which is love: the clearest assertion of love’s primacy and superiority over the
other theological virtues in the NT (already a well-known triad in 1 Thess 1:3). Faith will
yield to sight and hope to possession, whereas love will remain.
A' (14:1-40) Practical advice for charismatics:
Paul's mode of argumentation is to deal first with the more theological aspects of the
problem and then with the practical solution of it. Ch.14 deals almost exclusively with the
misuse of the gift of tongues in the midst of the Christian assembly.
A'a (14:1-5) Better to prophesy than to speak tongues:
14:1-5: V.1b returns to 12:31a revealing Paul’s primary concern. The argumentation
both here and in vv.6-19 is based on the premise that while the gift of tongues is a genuine
and commendable gift, it is also the least important one and the one most prone to misuse
and exaggeration. The series of contrasts in vv.2-5 discloses the problem at Corinth: a
disproportionate interest in tongues, with a corresponding failure to appreciate the worth of
prophecy. The apostle attempts to clarify the respective values by indicating the kind of
communication and effect achieved in each.
However, the fact that the Apostle is at pains to balance the use of tongues with other
gifts has often led interpreters to overlook the positive values he takes for granted in that
gift:
i) it is a language of genuine prayer to God, v.2;
ii) by it one builds oneself up, v.4;
iii) when accompanied by interpretation, its effect is the same as prophesy, v.5;
iv) Paul would all members of the community to speak in tongues, v.5;
v) he thanks God that he speaks in tongues more than any of the Corinthians, v.18;
vi) tongues are not to be forbidden, v.39;
vii) they are one of the gifts to be sought, v.1;
viii) Paul is not trying to discourage tongues but merely to regulate their use.
29
A'b (14:6-25) Tongue-speaking does not build up the community
14:6: Tongues have the least building potential of all. If Paul had come to Corinth
and spoken in tongues, they would not have understood him. Intelligibility is essential.
14:7-9: Musical instruments playing without sense any kind of notes confuse the
listeners. So it is with tongue-speaking.
14:10-12: One does not speak foreign languages to people if one wants to
communicate with them.
14:13-19: Tongue-speaking is unintelligible because it means nothing to the mind. It
should therefore be accompanied by an interpretation; otherwise no one will be able to agree
with it, i.e., say "Amen", v.16, nor will anyone be "edified", v.17. Unless a gift is lifted into
intelligibility it remains inefficacious and nonrational. The ecstatic element, dominant in
earliest OT prophets (1 Sam 10:5-13; 19:20-24) seems entirely absent from Paul’s notion of
prophecy and completely relegated to tongues. He emphasizes the role of reason and
instruction.
14:20-25: Paul's final argument, based on the reaction of outsiders to the
community, begins with an appeal to the words of Isa 28:11f, which insinuate that the
Corinthians themselves are the "unbelievers" (v.21f). The Corinthians pride themselves on
tongues as a sign of God’s favor, a means of communication with him. To challenge them
Paul adduces Isa who threatened the people that if they failed to listen to their prophets, the
Lord would speak to them in punishment through the lips of the Assyrian conquerors. He
compresses the text and makes God address his people directly, equating tongues with
foreign languages. Conclusion: tongues are not a mark of God’s pleasure for those who
listen to him but a sign of displeasure with those who are faithless, who have not heeded the
prophetic message. Then the obvious point is made that if outsiders hear members of the
community speak in tongues, they will think they are out of their minds, v.23. But if they
hear them prophesy, they will be impressed and edified, v.24f. Vv.24-25 then point to the
fact that a non-Christian who enters our liturgies ought finally to be able to find God.
A'a' (14:26-40) Better to prophesy than to speak in tongues
14:26-33a: The rule of order in vv.26-32 gives us the earliest information in the NT
about the manner in which worship was conducted64. Nothing is said about a celebrant
(bishop, priest, or elder). Almost everybody seems to take an active part in the celebration:
psalm-singing, instructing, speaking in tongues, interpreting. Paul limits the tonguespeaking to two or three provided there is an interpreter. Limited is also the number of
prophets allowed to speak. V.26 enunciates the basic norm in the use of any gift: it must
contribute to “building up”.
14:33b-36: From the Acts as also from the letters of Paul, we know that some
women cooperated with him in the ministry of evangelization, sometimes he thanked them
by name65. Some of them often exercised an important influence on conversions – Priscilla,
Lydia, Phoebe in the service of the church of Cenchreae and others. Paul is not opposed to
women prophesying66; the prohibition ai`
gunai/kej
evn
tai/j
evkklhsi,aij siga,twsan solely concerns the official function of teaching in the
64
See also 1 Cor 11:17-34.
Cf. Rom 16:1-12; Phil 4:2f.
66
Cf. 1 Cor 11:5.
65
30
Christian assembly. For him this prescription is bound up with the divine plan of creation
(diversity of functions)67, not diminishing the fundamental equality of men and women, as
children of God in Christ68. It is difficult, however, to harmonize the injunction to silence
here with 11:5.13, which appears to take it for granted that women do pray and prophesy
aloud in the assembly.
14:37-38: The Apostle asserts his authority and thus sums up everything he has said
in ch.14 about prophecy and tongue-speaking.
14:39-40: Conclusion reiterates 14:1-5 concerning the greater importance of
prophecy, stresses a general liturgical and disciplinary rule not only for the rambunctious
Corinthians: pa,nta de. euvschmo,nwj kai. kata. ta,xin gine,sqw
("omnia autem honeste et secundum ordinem fiant", NVg).
Evaluation of the Charismata:
When Christ ascended to heaven He promised to give to those who believe in Him
special gifts, Mk 16:17-18; when the Holy Spirit descended on the Apostles, phenomena of
wonderful character appeared. The converts of Corinth had been so abundantly blessed with
them that they consulted Paul about the source, value, and use of these extraordinary gifts, 1
Cor 12:1. Charismata69 are gratuitous graces (gratis datae) as opposed to sanctifying graces
(gratum facientes). They are not sanctifying in themselves. Definition: 'A gratuitous,
supernatural, and transitory gift, conferred for the sake of the general good and for the
edification of the mystical body of Christ'.
Of all the charismata the most extraordinary was the gift of tongues (glossolália70).
We do not know exactly what this was, but Scripture tells us at least what it was not: not
intended for the preaching of the Gospel71. Decisive is that the one who spoke with tongues
was not understood by those present unless there was an interpreter among them, 1 Cor
14:2. Thus, it was the supernatural ability to pray or to praise God in a strange language
with an enthusiasm bordering on exaltation. They verified the prophecies, proved visibly the
67
Cf. Gen 2:18-24; 1 Cor 11:7.
Cf. Gal 3:28; the variety of roles to be found in the Catholic Church – including the fact that the
ministerial priesthood is restricted to men chosen by God – is compatible with the essential equality
of men and women: "the priesthood does not form part of the rights of the individual, but stems from
the economy of the mystery of Christ and the Church. [...] It therefore remains for us to meditate
more deeply on the nature of the real equality of the baptized, which is one of the great affirmations
of Christianity: equality is in no way identity, for the Church is a differentiated body, in which each
individual has his or her role. The roles are distinct and must not be confused; they do not favor the
superiority of some vis-à-vis the others, nor do they provide an excuse for jealousy; the only better
gift, which can and must be desired, is love (1 Cor 12-13)." SACRED CONGREGATION FOR THE
DOCTRINE OF THE FAITH, Inter insigniores 6.
69
Apart from St. Paul an 1 Pt 4:10, the word Ca,risma is found only in PHILO (De leg. alleg., iii,
30), where it seems to be synonymous with Ca,rij. The Apostolic Fathers and more recent
ecclesiastical writers borrow the word from St. Paul and, using it in a very general sense, are of no
assistance to us (ex.gr. CLEMENT I, Ad Corinth., xxvii, 1; IGNATIUS, Ephes., xvii, 2). Paul has it
sixteen times in all, certainly in seven cases with the technical meaning which is in question here
(Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 1:7; 12:4.9.28.30.31). Elsewhere it means grace (of redemption, of sacrament of
Orders).
70
Glw,ssaij lalh,sousin kainai/j, Mk 16:17; Acts 10:46; 19:6.
71
See Acts 2:4.
68
31
continued presence of the Holy Spirit in the Church and symbolized the catholic unity of the
Gospel.
Paul protests vigorously against an excessive valuation of glossolália, and
recommends, on the contrary, the less esteemed gift of prophecy72. While the OT prophets
exercised a public function and a permanent ministry, those of the NT are prophets in a
more private and transitory capacity. These are inspired preachers, without being bearers of
a revelation in the proper sense of the word. Their specific rôle is edification
(oivkodomh,), exhortation (para,klhsij), and consolation (paramuqi,a)73. In the
hierarchy of charismata, the prophets always come immediately after the apostles. It has
over the glossolália the double advantage of being understood by the hearers and of being
profitable even to the unbelievers, 1 Cor 14:5. While the prophet edifies the church, the
glossolalo edifies only himself.
No doubt in the beginning, ecclesiastical dignitaries were often chosen from among
the possessors of charismata. If all the gifts were supernatural as fruits of the Holy Spirit, it
does not seem necessary that they should all be miraculous, and apparently the Apostle
might have called a supernaturalized natural aptitude a charisma.
15:1-58: The problem is that some of the Corinthians are denying the resurrection of
the dead (15:12), apparently because of their inability to imagine how any kind of bodily
existence could be possible after death (15:35)74. Paul affirms both the (i) essential
corporeity of the resurrection and (ii) its futurity.
15:3-7: Conformity of Jesus’ passion is asserted in Mt 16:1; Lk 24:25-27.32.44-46;
vv.3-4 kata. ta.j grafa.j, application of some OT texts (Gen 22; Psa 2:7; 16:8-11)
to his resurrection is illustrated by Acts 2:27-31; 13:29-39; Isa 52:13–53:12; Hos 6:2; Heb
11:17-19 may also have been envisaged. Nevertheless, the absence of an actual Bible
quotation in favor of the resurrection of the Messiah suggests that there existed no
established tradition among Jews about a dying and risen Christ.
15:20: The firstfruits are the portion of the harvest offered in thanksgiving to God,
implying the consecration of the entire harvest to come: Christ’s resurrection is not an end
in itself; its finality lies in the whole harvest, ourselves.
15:24-28: The perspective expands to cosmic dimensions; royal and military language
explains Jesus’ relationship to his enemies and his Father, the ultimate agent in the drama
and the final end of the process of subjection: God will fully be God!
15:29: oi` baptizo,menoi u`pe.r tw/n nekrw/nÈ A strange and
unknown custom of early Christianity. No source explicates it. In itself it demonstrates their
belief in the resurrection. Explanations of this sentence are legion. Paul’s argument is
against those who deny the resurrection. He neither approves nor condemns the practice.
Various comments:
a.) Christians had themselves baptized on behalf of pagan relatives/friends;
72
In the OT and NT the prophet is one who speaks in the name of God; this is the etymological
sense of the word (pro. – fa,nai, pro – fari, i.e., "to speak before someone, in his place").
73
1 Cor 14:3.
74
It is plausibly supposed that this attitude stems from Greek anthropology, which looked with
contempt upon matter with the survival of the soul. There is also some gnostic coloration which
considers the resurrection a purely spiritual experience already achieved in baptism and in the
remission of sins.
32
b.) on behalf of a moribund;
c.) translate u`pe,r as “because”;
d.) taking bapti,zein as a metaphor for “destroy, die, sanctify” etc.;
e.) distinguishing between oi` nekroi, = Christians, and nekroi, = pagans, who
received baptism to be close to their family/friends in death;
f.) the relative or friend of a catechumen, who had died before receiving baptism, would
be symbolically baptized75 on behalf of that deceased person: the action publicly affirmed
that the dead catechumen died in communion with the Church and hoped for the
resurrection76. This custom was tolerated in the early Church until heretics attributed to it
the efficacy of real baptism.
15:32: evqhrioma,chsa evn VEfe,sw| (qhriomace,w to fight with beasts,
“ad bestias pugnavi Ephesi”), difficult to identify this episode. Is it an allusion to the failed
Jewish exorcism (seven sons of Sceva, a Jewish chief priest) in Acts 19:11-17? Or else, to
the silversmiths’ riot, 19:23-41? Or was it a real experience in the stadium? Probably he
reminisces about his spiritual combat there since a Roman citizen was excluded from being
thrown ad bestias. Since he does not elsewhere mention a combat with beasts he may be
speaking figuratively about struggles with adversaries.
15:36-38: Analogy of the seed: there is a change of attributes from seed to plant.
15:42-44: Before: a body animated by a lower, natural life-principle (yuch,) and
endowed with corruptibility, lack of glory and weakness; after: a body animated by a higher
life-principle (pneu/ma) and endowed with incorruptibility, glory and power, which are
properties of God himself.
15:51-52: Mystery: the last moment in God’s plan is revealed in stock details of the
apocalyptic scenario.
15:54-55: In his prophetic vision Paul may be making Hosea’s words (13:14) his own or
imagining this cry of triumph on the lips of the risen Church.
16:1-4: Our earliest evidence for a project that became a major undertaking of Paul’s
ministry: the collection for the church at Jerusalem was a pledge and symbol in his mind for
the unity of the Judeo-Christian churches that sprang from the mother-church in Jerusalem
and the Gentile-Christian churches he had founded (cf. Gal 2:10; Rom 15:25-29; 2 Cor 8-9).
16:2: First traces of the dominical day, the Sunday, cf. Acts 20:7; Rev 1:10; Mt 28:1.
16:8: Tells us the place from which he wrote this letter and suggests he may have
composed it about Easter time, cf. 5:7-8.
16:22: Anathema, “accursed”, is a formula of exclusion from the community; it may
imply here a call to self-examination before celebration of the Eucharist. (i) Marana-tha, an
Aramaic expression, probably used in early Christian liturgy: “Our Lord, come!”, a prayer
for his return; (ii) if the Aramaic words are divided differently (Maran-atha, “our Lord has
come”) it becomes a credal declaration; (iii) it is also a Eucharistic Prayer “Come Jesus,
now!”; cf. the former rendition as supported by Rev 22:20.
75
76
None of the Greek Fathers thought of any type of vicarious baptism.
This is the consensus of the majority of Catholic exegetes.
33
VIII. The Second Letter to the Corinthians, 57 A.D. (from Macedonia, 3rd journey)
Occasion: 2 Cor originates in Titus’ statements concerning the deteriorating
situation involving Judeo-Christians who agitated against the apostle in Corinth in his
absence, accusing him of egocentrism, cowardice, evil intentions – especially regarding the
collections of money –, complex of inferiority, lack of apostolic vocation and authority77.
This is Paul's most personal letter. Between the first letter to the Corinthians and this one
(ca. 57 CE) a number of events must have occurred. It was from Macedonia that he sent this
letter, towards the end of 57. During a short visit to Corinth Paul must have been harassed
by certain Judaizers who undermined his authority. He defends himself against their
accusations in chs.10-13 especially. Apparently someone even attacked the Apostle directly
(2 Cor 2:5f), without the community immediately taking steps to discipline the person
responsible (2 Cor 7:12). Because of this troubled visit, he wrote "out of much affliction and
anguish of heart" (2 Cor 2:4) a letter which has not survived78, arguably because of its
highly sensitive contents which would have been embarrassing for the Corinthians.
Content: The letter deals with three points, which cover three large sections:
1. The apostolic ministry (chs.1-7): Paul's apologia for himself and his apostolate
delineates the role of the Apostles as pillars of the Church. A crisis between him and the
Corinthians occasioned at least partially by changes in his travel plans (1:12–2:13) is
successfully resolved in 7:5-16.
2. The collection for Jerusalem (chs.8-9): Already in 1 Cor he was encouraging more
well-to-do Christians to help their brethren in Jerusalem who were experiencing severe
difficulties due to persecution and penury. In 2 Cor he dedicates two chapters to this matter.
3. Lies spread by his enemies (chs.10-13): The Apostle feels obliged to make a
personal apologia to those who denied his authority. He deals, item by item, with those lies
about him and gives the faithful enough arguments to answer his calumniators. It also acts
as a preparation for his next – third – visit to Corinth, which took place at the beginning of
58.
Authenticity and Integrity: There is no doubt about this being a genuine Pauline
letter. This is borne out by external (quotations from and references to it in the works of the
Fathers and ecclesiastical writers, from earliest times) and internal evidence (style,
language, form of argument reflect Paul's personality). Some scholars have raised doubts
77
See also the Epistle by St. CLEMENT OF ROME in response to a dispute in the troubled church of
Corinth only decades later (95 A.D.): certain “presbyters” and “bishops” had been deposed; Clement
calls for repentance and their reinstatement in line with maintenance of order and obedience to
ecclesial authority established by the apostles. In fact, this letter became temporary part of the canon
of Scriptures, the first to affirm the apostolic authority of the clergy. He also mentions “offering the
gifts” as one of the functions of the higher clergy, giving valuable insight into Church ministry at
that time and in that city.
78
There are good grounds for assuming that Paul wrote four letters to the converts of Corinth: the
first, pre-canonical, which was lost, mentioned in 1 Cor 5:9; the second, written in Ephesus in spring
57, is inspired and canonical (1 Cor); the third, also from Ephesus "with many tears", mentioned in 2
Cor 2:4, now-lost; the fourth composed in Macedonia in the autumn of 57, entered the canon as 2
Cor.
34
regarding its integrity. Three passages are discussed due to seeming lack of textual
continuity:
a) 2 Cor 6:14–7:1: breaks the literary flow, out of place, belonging to 1 Cor, or a
fragment from the pre-canonical Cor; however, all Greek mss and earlier traditions do have
this passage.
b) Ch 9: identical to subject dealt with in ch.8, contrary to Paul's custom not to
repeat himself in two adjacent chapters. However, internal (continuity between the two chs.)
and external (all mss do have ch. 9) evidence argue that ch.9 is original.
c) Chs. 10-13: radical change of tone, severe and harsh; however, explainable if one
bears in mind Paul's reaction to those agitators who wormed their way into the community.
Apostolic Ministry: The main thread running through 2 Cor (except chs.8-9) is his
defense of his apostolic ministry against the Judaizers, providing the fullest NT teaching on
the office of Apostle: Divine election through mercy, co-worker of Christ, His ambassador,
faithful and disinterested preacher of Christ, partaker in His sufferings, love and jealousy for
His flock. Paul then demonstrates the superiority of the New Covenant, of which he is the
minister, as compared to the Old. This he does by a series of contrasts.
Schematic survey: This outline presupposes that all of 2 Cor constitutes one letter
rather than the two or three postulated by some commentators. We are convinced that all of
2 Cor 1-13 is a well-integrated letter, and the principal reason for this is the fact that it falls
so easily into Paul's customary A-B-A' format:
A (1:1–7:16) The signs of a true Apostle
(a) 1:1–2:13: Consolation and reconciliation
(b) 2:14–7:3: The ministry of the New Covenant
(a') 7:4-16: Consolation and reconciliation
B (8:1–9:15) The collection
(a) 8:1-15: An appeal for generosity
(b) 8:16-24: A recommendation for Titus and his companions
(a') 9:1-15: Another appeal for generosity
A' (10:1–13:14) The signs of a true Apostle
(a) 10:1-18: Paul's return to Corinth
(b) 11:1–12:11: The signs of a true Apostle
(a') 12:12–13:14: Return to Corinth
1:12–2:13: The autobiographical remarks about the crisis in Asia Minor lead into
consideration of a crisis that has arisen between him and Corinth. Paul will return to this
after a long digression in 7:5-16. Both sections deal with changed travel plans that opened a
breach between them; there is a final reconciliation.
1:18-22: Unable to deny the change of plans, Paul nonetheless asserts the firmness of the
original plan and claims a profound constancy in his life and work. A number of the terms
here, which appear related only conceptually in Greek or English, would be variations of the
same Hebrew root, !ma, and thus naturally associated in a Semitic mind; these include the
35
words ‘yes’ (vv.17-20), ‘faithful’ (v.18), ‘amen’ (v.20), ‘security’ (v.21), ‘faith’ and ‘stand
firm’ (v.24).
1:21-22: The commercial terms (security, seal, installment) are here used analogously to
refer to Christian initiation; the passage is clearly trinitarian.
2:14–7:4: This section constitutes a digression within the narrative of crisis and
resolution (1:12–2:13 and 7:5-16). The main component 2:14–6:10 treats the nature of
Paul’s apostleship and his qualifications for it (similar to chs.10-13), followed by a block of
supplementary material quite different in tone and character, 6:14–7:1.
2:14: This amphibolic metaphor of a festive parade (qriambo,j, Lat. triumphus) in
honor of a conquering military hero can suggest either a positive sharing in Christ’s triumph
or a defeat, being led in captivity and submission (cf. 4:8-11; 1 Cor 4:9; Col 2:15)79.
2:14-16: The metaphor of incense/aroma suggests the gradual diffusion of the
knowledge of God through apostolic preaching.
3:1: Paul seems to allude to certain preachers who pride themselves on their written
credentials; presumably they reproach him for not posessing similar credentials and compel
him to spell out his own qualifications (4:2; 5:12; 6:4).
3:7–4:6: The Apostle now develops the contrast enunciated in 3:6b in terms of the
relative glory of the two covenants, insisting on the greater glory of the new.
3:8-11: The argument “from the less to the greater” is repeated three times, vv.8.9.11.
3:13-14a: In Exodus Moses veiled his face to protect the Israelites from God’s reflected
glory; without impugning Moses’ sincerity, Paul attributes another effect to the veil, that of
the people’s failure to notice the glory disappearing.
4:6: Autobiographical allusion to the episode at Damascus clarifies the origin and nature
of Paul’s ministry80. “light/darkness” echoes Gen 1:3; Isa 9:1; 42:6.16; 49:6; 60:1-2; evn
prosw,pw| ÎVIhsou/Ð Cristou/, “that which all religions perceive vaguely, which
they express obliquely or clearly, finds its unexpected fulfillment in a human face; the face,
the eyes, the voice, the countenance of a man, the One who is God and man, has become
God’s own Word, his personal gesture, his self-expression – this we believe without a full
understanding.”81
4:8-9: Another catalogue of his apostolic trials and hardships (cf. 6:4-10); yet the
negative never completely prevails, there is always some experience of rescue and salvation.
5:4: Allusion to physical death (4:16; 5:1). Unlike Greeks, who found dissolution of the
body desirable (cf. Sokrates), Paul has a Jewish horror of it; he thinks of an interval between
death and resurrection.
Exegesis of 5:11–21 (The ministry of reconciliation):
5:11: Turning from God's judgment (5:6-10) to men's judgment of him (5:11-15),
Paul appeals to the consciences of the Corinthians to accept him for what he is. He seeks to
persuade them that he is a true apostle, no matter what his opponents say about him.
5:12-13: The purpose of the argumentation is not so much to commend himself, but
that the Corinthians who read what he has been saying in 2:14-5:10 concerning the
79
Cf. HOECK, «Christ is the parade».
Metaphorically, Paul’s gospel is the child of two parents, the Damascus revelation being the
father, and the Jesus tradition the mother; the OT is like a grandparent of his theology, and the prePauline kerygma like an older sibling.
81
Christoph Cardinal SCHÖNBORN, God’s Human Face, the Christ-Icon, San Francisco 1994, 238.
80
36
"qualified" minister of the Gospel vs. the unqualified will be able to answer those who pride
themselves on a man's position and not on his heart (v.12b). His statement in v.13 leads into
what follows in vv.14-21, which regards Paul's new-found evaluation of all men as
redeemed by Christ and therefore, in every instance, a "new creation".
5:14-15: What impels the Apostle is his conviction that Christ loves all men and has
died for all. It is this overarching fact of life that conditions the way he esteems all different
people with whom he comes in contact.
5:16-17: View of all men as virtually or potentially new creations; merely human
judgment is incapable of rightly evaluating the true human dignity of every person. Men and
women are infinitely more because in Christ the world is reconciled to the Father (1 Cor
1:10–2:5; Jer 31:31-34).
5:18-20: Message of reconciliation (katallagh,)82 as ambassadors of Christ
fittingly summarizes reflections in 2:14–5:21 (new covenant and its ministers): the
“reconciliation” language is uniquely Pauline in the NT.
5:21: Humankind's redemption. What man deserved – the penalty of sin – Jesus
accepted in their place. What they did not deserve because of sin – reconciliation and
righteousness – came about because of the love of the Father manifested through His Son.
6:8-10: A series of seven rhetorically effective antitheses, contrasting negative
external impressions with positive inner reality. Paul perceives his life as a reflection of
Jesus’ own and affirms an inner reversal that escapes outward observation.
6:18: The title pantokra,twr occurs in the NT only here and nine times in Rev.
7:5-16: This section functions as a peroration of formal summing up of the whole
first part of the letter, chs.1-7, dealing with the restoration of right relations between Paul
and the Corinthians, marked by fullness and intensity of emotions.
Exegesis of chs. 8-9 (The collection for the Mother-church in Jerusalem): In the second
main part of 2 Cor (chs.8-9), Paul discusses a difficult question but with great tact and
dexterity of language. There is an early precedent for this project in Gal 2:6-10. He was
deeply concerned with the collection for the poor of Jerusalem to be made at Corinth, first,
because the need was pressing. Also, a generous collection would not only be a special sign
of unity between that Gentile church and their Jewish brethren so far away, but it would also
be an outstanding proof that the Apostle's own authority had been thoroughly rehabilitated
where but recently it had been questioned. Lastly, Paul, who had greatly contributed to the
financial ruin of the Church by his persecution, was happy to have an occasion to make
some restitution.
8:1-15: A complete letter of recommendation for Titus and two unnamed
companions, written from Macedonia at least a year later than 1 Cor 16, an occasion for
expounding a Theology of ‘Giving’ (TG: five aspects spelled out below). Paul begins by
citing the example set by the Macedonian Churches83. It was the great success of the
collection there that moved him to send Titus to collect among the Corinthians; and he is
sure that the faithful of Achaia are not less zealous than their poor neighbors (TG 1), nor
82
To reconcile (katalla,ssw) means to restore a relationship to what it was before something
damaged it. The guilty party should be the reconciler. In this case, however, it is the injured party –
God – who brings about the reconciliation through Christ.
83
I.e., Philippi (Acts 16:12), Thessalonica (Acts 17:1), and Berea (Acts 17:10).
37
less mindful of the great truth that Christ became poor that they might be enriched (TG 2).
Paul’s ability to produce profound theological foundations for what may at first sight appear
to be rather commonplace circumstances is perhaps nowhere better exemplified than in 2
Cor. They who were among the first to begin the collection (8:10; 9:2) will not fail to
complete it according to their means. In 1 Cor 16:1-4 the Apostle had already spoken of this
collection, and later (Rom 15:26f) he again returns to it. From Luke (Acts 24:17) we know
that the proceeds of it were finally taken to Jerusalem by Paul himself.
8:1-2: The fundamental theme is expressed by ca,rij (cf. 9:8.14); the related term
euvcaristi,a also occurs at 9:11.12. The wordplay is not superficial; various mutations
of the same root signal and exploit inner connections between aspects of the same reality.
V.2 introduces three more terms with their semantico-contextual variations: “test”,
“abundance”, and “generosity”.
8:7: The charitable service Paul is promoting is seen briefly within the light of his
theology of the charisms.
8:9: The dialectic of Jesus’ life (cf. Phil 2:6-11) is now rephrased in terms of wealth
and poverty, a reference to his incarnation, and/or to his abandonment on the cross.
8:12-15: The Apostle brings up the principle of equality (TG 3) the goal is not
impoverishment but sharing of resources to achieve balance (cf. Israel gathering manna in
the desert).
8:16-24: After his exhortation to the Corinthians, Paul recommends those officials
who have been appointed to terminate the work. Titus, who had begun the collection, and
who loves them very much, is not in need of any recommendation. And as regards the two
delegates who assist him, one was a trusted helper in the Macedonian collection, and the
other has proved himself most faithful in many important charges, and is very well disposed
toward the Corinthian converts. Hence all three deserve to be received most cordially by
them.
9:1-5: 9:1-15 quite possibly was originally an independent letter. After commending
the delegates who are to make the collection at Corinth, Paul urges that what the faithful
have to give should be collected soon. He himself, perhaps accompanied by some
Macedonians, will visit them shortly, and if the alms are gathered before that event, they
will not be made ashamed by the presence of their generous neighbors; the reputation they
have will be sustained.
9:6-15: The Apostle is sending his delegates to Corinth beforehand, in order that the
collection may be completed in advance of his own arrival. And yet he hopes haste may not
in any way interfere with the generosity and willingness of the Corinthians. Accordingly,
before closing his topic, he takes occasion briefly to exhort the faithful to give freely and
generously, in view of their future recompense (TG 4). God will reward their charity with
greater benefits, both temporal and spiritual, because their bounty will not only relieve the
necessities of those who receive it, but will also glorify God (TG 5). Wherefore Paul
concludes with an act of thanksgiving to the heavenly Father.
2 Cor 1:12–2:11 was Defensio Pauli Prima; it is now continued in 2 Cor 10-13 as
Defensio Pauli Altera, so filled with autobiographical insights into the heart of the apostle of
the nations.
38
10:1–13:10: The text is emotionally charged and highly rhetorical; in the central section
11:16–12:10 his defense takes the form of a boast, prepared by a prologue 11:1-15, and
followed by an epilogue 12:11-18. These sections in turn are framed by an introduction
10:1-18, and a conclusion 12:19–13:10, both of which assert Paul’s apostolic authority and
confidence, the purpose of the letter. The structure results in a chiasm.
10:2b-4: Sa,rx can express both the physical life of the body without any pejorative
overtones and also our natural life insofar as it is marked by limitation and weakness in
paradoxical contrast to the higher life of the Spirit.
10:3b-6: Strong military language and imagery assert his confidence in God and a
declaration of war against those who underestimate his resources.
11:2-3: A sudden glimpse of the theological values that are at stake: the perspective of
the covenant in imagery of love and marriage as in the prophets. Paul fears the repetition of
the primeval drama of seduction; satanic imagery recurs in 11:13-15.20; 12:7b.16-17.
11:5: The superapostles appear to be intruders in Corinth, not the other apostles, rejected
by Paul as ministers of Satan.
11:16–12:10: Paul indulges in boasting similar to his opponents but with moderation and
in the Lord.
11:21-33: The most touching of Paul’s catalogues of personal suffering in the service of
the humiliated and crucified Christ; see also 1 Cor 4:9-13; 2 Cor 1:8-11; 4:7-12; 6:4-10;
12:10; Rom 8:35; Phil 4:12f; cf. Hb 11:35-38.
11:30–12:10: The second part of his boast is marked by a change of style and shift in
focus: his weakness as matter of boasting.
11:28: “Sollicitudo omnium ecclesiarum”, CHRYSOSTOM: “Cor Pauli, cor mundi!”
12:1-4: No longer confined to bodily conditions but not knowing the mechanics of the
mystico-ecstatic experience. Ancient cosmologies depicted a multitiered universe with a
number of heavens (Jewish intertestamental literature speculates about three or seven
heavens, God living in the third or seventh of them).
12:5-7: The indirect way of referring to himself shows the distance between the
passivity and receptivity of that ecstasy and his everyday life.
12:7-9: Paul’s threefold petition for liberation from the “thorn in the flesh” corresponds
to Christ’s triple prayer in Gethsemani. Variously interpreted as a sickness, a physical
disability, a temptation, or a handicap; but since Hebrew “thorn in the flesh” refers to
persons (cf. Num 33:55; Eze 28:24) he may be talking about obnoxious opponents (satanic
language applied to them already in 11:3.13-15.20). However, release and healing are
withheld for a higher purpose, that of manifesting the paradoxical power of grace.
12:11-18: This section forms an epilogue to Paul’s kau,chsij, corresponding to the
prologue in 11:1-15.
13:11-13: A conclusion to the whole of 2 Cor in its present form. The epistle ends
calmly after its many storms with the prospect of Church unity and divine blessing. The
final clause is one of the most lucid trinitarian formulas in the NT84.
84
Cf. HOECK, «Doxologies».
39
IX. The Letter to the Galatians, 57 A.D. (from Ephesus, 3rd journey)
In the center of the epistle stands the Gospel free from the Torah: its divine origin (chs.
1-2), its contents (ch. 3), and according moral conduct (ch. 4-6).
Galatia: The Galatians were a celtic ethnicity. Present day heartland of Turkey was
called Galatia in Paul's time85. Wherever in Asia Minor the Galatian churches were situated,
it is clear that the Apostle had founded them on one of his missionary journeys. The
Galatians had been outright pagans at the time of their conversion to Christianity, 4:8, now
under some judaizing influence, 3:1-5.
Purpose: A serious theological crisis had arisen in those churches: Jewish Christian
missionaries (probably from Jerusalem) challenged Paul's Gospel of salvation through faith
in Jesus. He calls these Judaizers "the circumcised" (peritemno,menoi; cf. 6:13); they
were still so wedded to their old way of life in Judaism that they insisted that all Gentile
Christians should be circumcised and observe the Mosaic Law. The Apostle opposes them
not only because he had taught that one is free of the Law in Christ, but because they were
trying to convince the Galatians that such observance was necessary for salvation. Paul’s
mature thought, together with invaluable biographical details is contained in Gal. It defends
the Apostle's authority to preach Christ and freedom from the constraints of the Law.
Date: Internal evidence suggests that Galatians was written shortly after 2 Cor,
sometime around 57 A.D. from either Ephesus or Macedonia, after his second visit there (cf.
Gal 4:13; 1:6).
Style: The gibe of Paul's adversaries in Corinth "His letters are weighty and strong,
but his bodily presence is weak, and his speech of no account" (2 Cor 10:10) may have led
him to realize the impact and effectiveness of his letters. Gal and Rom reflect this
consciousness. They are strong, profound, and self-assured. Unlike Rom, which is calmly
expository in the main, Gal is chiefly apologetic in form and vehement. Being deeply
moved by the situation he is combating and filled with righteous indignation the Apostle
rushes on, like a mighty torrent, caring not for unfinished phrases, jolting omissions,
grammatical mistakes, so long as he is able to give undoubted expression to his feelings.
The sudden changes and transitions of thought and wording, the unexpected ruptures and
unevenness of language, the bursts of anger towards his enemies, often swiftly alternating
with tenderest words of sympathy for those that were well disposed – all features so
characteristic of Paul – make it impossible that anyone could have forged this epistle by
imitating any other of the Apostle's writings. In terms of rhetorical criticism, Gal is a
sustained exercise in deliberative rhetoric (persuasion not to accept the agitators' Gospel of
circumcision).
Structure86: Paul carefully structured his letters in order to persuade the
congregations which heard them to adopt his point of view. He arranges his arguments in
85
It acquired its name from the Celtic tribes called the Galloi, who moved into north-central Asia
Minor in the third cent. B.C.
86
According to MATERA, F.J., Galatians, Sacra Pagina Series 9, Collegeville 1992, p. 12f.
40
such a way that by the end of the letter the Galatians find themselves in a rhetorical maze
with only one exit: they must refuse circumcision lest they are cut off from Christ and
relegated to the realm of the Law. Paul’s presentation on behalf of his message and of his
apostleship reflects rhetorical forms of his day: He first narrates the facts about certain past
events (1:12–2:14), and then states his contention regarding justification by faith as the
Gospel message (2:15-21). Further arguments follow from both experience and scripture
(chs.3-4), before he draws out the ethical consequences (chs.5-6).
History of exegesis: Marius Victorinus († 363) composed the first Latin
Commentaries on Gal, Phil, and Eph.
The Greeting, 1:1-5
Statement of astonishment, 1:6-10
I. The Truth of the Gospel, 1:11–2:21
Gospel not of human origin, 1:11-17
The Jerusalem Church did not commission Paul, 1:18-24
Paul defended truth at Jerusalem, 2:1-10
Peter betrayed truth at Antioch, 2:11-14
Justification by the faith of Jesus Christ, 2:15-21
II. The Children of the Promise, 3:1–5:12
A. Abraham's true descendants, 3:1-29
Spirit not through legal works, 3:1-6
People of faith are Abraham's descendants, 3:7-14
Law annuls not the promise, 3:15-20
Law not opposed to the promise, 3:21-25
Those in Christ are Abraham's descendants, 3:26-29
B. Rebuke and Appeal, 4:1–5:12
No return to religious infancy, 4:1-11
Become as I am!, 4:12-20
Expel the children of the slave woman, 4:21-31
Avoid circumcision, 5:1-12
III. Living by the Spirit, 5:13–6:10
Love fulfills the Law, 5:13-15
Walk by the Spirit, 5:16-26
Fulfill the Law of Christ, 6:1-10
1:1 – 2:21: The specific facts that Paul takes up here – to show that his Gospel is
supernatural – deal with his own calling as a Christian missionary (vv.13-17), his initial
relations with the apostles in Jerusalem (vv.18-24), a later journey to that city (2:1-10), an
incident in Antioch involving Kephas and persons from James (2:11-14). The content of
Paul’s Gospel is then set forth in the heart of the epistle (2:15-21).
1:1-5: This opening is terser and less amicable than in any other epistle: there is not a
single word of acknowledgment or praise for the Galatians. In vv.1-4, Paul brings in the two
main epistolary themes, (i) he is a true apostle, chs.1:1-2:14, (ii) he brings the Good News
41
that we are saved through faith in Christ Jesus, and that Christians are therefore free, 2:155:18.
1:1: Pau/loj avpo,stoloj, because of attacks on his authority in Galatia, Paul
defends his apostleship not commissioned by a local church or even by prophets (ouvk
avpV avnqrw,pwn ouvde. diV avnqrw,pou).
Exegesis of 1:11-24 (Paul’s call to the Gospel):
v.11: Paul undertakes the demonstration that his Gospel (euvagge,lion) is not of
human invention (ouvk e;stin kata. a;nqrwpon).
v.12: The Gospel was neither received (pare,labon) nor taught
(evdida,cqhn) by man, but originates in a revelation from Christ (avlla. diV
avpokalu,yewj VIhsou/ Cristou)87. The two aspects of revelation (grammatical
value of genitive, called genitivus epexegeticus), i.e., ‘as made by Christ’ and ‘about Christ’,
should not be taken as meaning that he received all his doctrine without human
intermediaries, and much less that on the Damascus road all was revealed to him at once.
Paul is referring to the topic that it is not obeying the Torah that saves, but having faith.
vv.13-14: Along with Phil 3:4-11, which also moves from autobiography to its
climax in a discussion on justification by faith (cf. Gal 2:15-21), this passage is Paul’s chief
account of the change from his former way of life (avnastrofh, = conduct) with his
extremely lethal persecution of the Church (kaqV u`perbolh.n evdi,wkon th.n
evkklhsi,an tou/ qeou/ kai. evpo,rqoun [porqe,w to pillage, destroy,
annihilate; see the durative imperfect tense] auvth,n, v.13) and his outstanding progress
in zeal for Judaism (v.14), to service as an apostle, cf. vv.15-16.
v.15: Paul speaks about his Damascus experience as a “call”, ka,lein, (his language
and mission to the Gentiles echo the OT prophetic call of Jer 1:5; Isa 49:1-6; John the
Baptist) rather than ‘conversion’ (meta,noia, as commemorated liturgically on January
25th)88. He did not regard himself as having converted from one religion to another. He did
not apostatize from the legacy of his Jewish heritage. He was called out of the sectarian
Pharisaic Judaism to the discipleship of Jesus the Nazarene89. Paul always considered his
Gospel as the continuation, the enactment, the fulfillment of the promise to Abraham (cf.
Gen 12:3; Gal 3:8)90.
v.16: “To reveal His Son in me” (avpokalu,yai to.n ui`o.n auvtou/ evn
evmoi,)91, cf. v.12: Paul is stressing the inwardness of this real vision (cf. 1 Cor 9:1; 15:8)
and relating it to his call as apostle to the Gentiles. “Flesh and blood” (sarki. kai.
87
Not excluding his use of early Christian confessional formulations (e.g., Gal 1:4).
The three parallel autobiographical accounts are (a) Acts 9:1-22; (b) Acts 22:4-16; (c) Acts 26:918. Unlike the account (b) the calling of Paul in Gal 1:16 includes the mission to proclaim Christ to
the Gentiles.
88
Cf. 1 Cor 15:8, as an e;ktrwma, the “untimely birth”.
Consequently, there is no thought in his theology of the Church versus Israel. On the contrary, the
Church is what she is precisely by being grafted (= incorporated) into the ancient olive tree that is
Israel (cf. Rom 11:17-24).
91
Others translate “to reveal His Son to me”.
89
90
42
ai[mati) is a further emphasis on the no-human origin of his mission (see also Mt 16:17;
1 Cor 15:50).
v.17: “Arabia” is probably the region of the Nabatean Arabs, east and south of
Damascus, cf. 1Macc 5:25, where Paul took refuge from King Aretas, see 2 Cor 11:32.
v.18: “After three years”, i.e., since his call, he goes up (avnh/lqon) to Jerusalem
as a Christian, according to Galatians (cf. Acts 9:23-31; 12:25). To “confer” (infinitive
aorist active i`storh/sai, hapax legomenon) with Kephas (Khfa/j Aramaic
equivalent of Greek Pe,troj, meaning ‘rock’; cf. Mt 16:16-18) may mean simply “to pay
a visit” or more specifically “get information from” him about Jesus, over a two-week
period.
v.19: “James the brother of the Lord” (VIa,kwbon to.n avdelfo.n tou/
kuri,ou): Identifying him with the son of Alphaeus (Mt 10:3), belonging to the college of
the apostles, or else understanding ‘apostle’ in the wider sense (cf. Rom 1:1; Mk 6:3; Gal
2:9; Acts 12:17).
v.20: He testifies under oath (evnw,pion tou/ qeou/).
v.21: On returning to Syria (perhaps specifically Damascus, cf. v.17) and Cilicia
(including his own home town Tarsus, cf. Acts 9:30; 22:3), Paul most likely engaged in
missionary work.
vv.22-24: He underscores the fact that Christians in Judea knew of him only by
reputation.
2:1-10: Usually equated with the Council of Jerusalem (cf. Acts 15; n.b., Paul does not
mention the “decree”); the Apostle’s second journey to Jerusalem, according to Gal,
involved a private meeting with those of repute (v.2, katV ivdi,an de. toi/j
dokou/sin) about Titus and circumcision which ‘false brothers’ demanded for him
without compelling him.
Exegesis of 2:11-14 (Peter at Antioch not observing the Mosaic food laws):
2:11: We understand Antioch in Syria rather than in Pisidia (Acts 13:14), third
largest city in the Empire. Christianity was brought there by Hellenists about A.D. 40, and it
was there that Hellenists from Cyprus and Cyrene converted Gentiles without demanding
circumcision. Paul was a loyal member of that church. There is no indication of when or
why Peter came to Antioch; perhaps he sought refuge there because of the persecution by
HEROD AGRIPPA (Acts 12:1-19). Except for 1Jo 3:20f this is the only use of
kataginw,skw (accurate detection of evil in somebody). The reason for Peter's
condemnation, his hypocritical behavior, is explained below. Paul's bold behavior
(avnqi,sthmi to stand against publicly) should be compared with the view of his
adversaries in 2 Cor 10:1 (bold at a distance, humble face-to-face; cf. the mysterious silence
of the Acts on the incident).
2:12: At first when Peter came there, he ate with the Gentiles, but later, upon the
arrival of some Jews sent by James, he withdrew from the Gentiles. His example was
followed by the rest of the Jewish Christians at Antioch, and finally even by Barnabas.
Seeing this weakness and inconsistency on the part of Peter and the harm that was resulting,
Paul, in the presence of all, rebuked Peter, accusing him of morally forcing the Gentile
Christians to conform to Jewish practices.
43
P46 reads "before a certain one came from James"; this is an interesting reading in
the light of 5:10, referring to an individual disturbing the Galatian community92. Tinaj
avpo. VIakw,bou could be construed as a delegation sent by James93 to investigate the
situation. Peter's customary behavior is emphasized by the imperfect sunh,sqien, though
it was forbidden to share table fellowship with those who did not observe the dietary
prescriptions of the Law94. And again, the imperfect tense of the verbs "withdraw"
(u`pe,stellen) and "separate" (avfw,rizen) indicates a gradual retreat on the part of
Peter, establishing the old boundaries between Jew and Gentile.
However, Paul would later face the same dilemma himself, and espouse a perspective
similar to that which he rebuked. Writing to the Christians of Rome a few years later,
around the middle of the decade of the 50s, Paul will find himself before an analogous
situation and he will ask the strong that they not eat impure food so as not to lose the weak
or cause scandal for them, Rom 14:13-23 (cf. 1 Cor 8:7-13)!
2:13: The sense of sunupekri,qhsan is to play-act by masking one's true
feelings. Paul intimates that Peter and the other Jewish Christians no longer believed in the
validity of the dietary legislation but pretended to do so because they feared those associated
with James. Even Barnabas was taken in (once courageously opposing the false brethren
with Paul) so that Paul must stand alone now.
2:14: To refuse table fellowship with Gentile believers because of legal restrictions
is to deny the truth of the Gospel. This hypocrisy deserved rebuke, cf. 1 Tim 5:20. With this
episode Peter/Khfa/j leaves the narrative of the NT.
Exegesis of 2:15-21 (We are justified by the Faith of Jesus Christ):
92
This reading, however, is not supported by any of the other relevant mss, and it probably arose
because of the well attested variant hvlqen (3rd. sing.) in that same verse.
93
Acts 12:17 suggests that he became the leader of the Jerusalem Church after Peter left because of
Herod Agrippa's persecution. N.B.: James 1 "the Great" is the elder brother of John, sons
(Boanerges) of Zebedee and Salome; traditionally preached in Spain, buried in Santiago de
Compostela, put to death by Herod Agrippa I in Jerusalem (Acts 12:2) first Apostle martyr; James 2
is the son of Alphaeus, Apostle, probably brother of Levi/Matthew (Mk 2:14), nothing is known
about him, does not appear in Acts; James 3 is one of the 'brothers of Jesus', Jesus appears to him (1
Cor 15:7), in Acts he emerges as the most prominent of Jesus' brothers, he is reputed to be a pillar of
the Jerusalem Church alongside Peter and John (Gal 2:9), participates as conservative leader in the
Jerusalem Council. Soon after it Peter shared the fellowship of Gentile Christians without any
dietary restrictions; James sends representatives from the Jerusalem Church who believed that the
Law was still to be followed by Jewish Christians in all respects. Peter evidently urged the Gentile
converts to yield to these newcomers. James continued to be identified with those conservative
Jewish Christians who saw the adherence to the Law to be consistent with Jesus' own mission which
had been concentrated on Israel. According to Flavius Josephus, James 3 was martyred in Jerusalem
e few years before A.D. 70. He is traditionally the author of the letter of James; James 4 is one of the
sons of Mary who was among the women on Calvary, referred to as James "the younger" (Mk
15:40), he is James "the Less", to distinguish him from James 1 the son of Zebedee, called "the
Great". It is possible that he is identical with James 2 or James 3; but most scholars believe him to
be a separate individual. Nothing else is known about him.
94
Cf. Acts 11:3; Ezek 4:13; Hos 9:3f; Ex 34:15.
44
2:15: Paul's reprimand becomes a statement of a theological position: “Jews by
birth” (~Hmei/j fu,sei VIoudai/oi), cf. Rom 2:14, highlights the racial aspect of
those born into the covenant people, having the gift of the Law. By contrast, the Gentiles are
sinners (evqnw/n a`martwloi,) by the fact that they stand outside of the covenant,
deprived of the Law, cf. Eph 2:12.
2:16: The de,96 provides an adversative sense indicating that Jewish believers have
come to a new understanding of justification. The verb dikaio,w means (1) to show
justice, (2) to vindicate or treat someone as just. In the LXX dikaioun is primarily a forensic
term, and Paul adopts this legal sense: God acquits the sinner declaring him to be just 97.
While the primary sense is legal, Paul's statement (2:20) that Christ lives in him indicates
that this acquittal results in a new life for the believer. "By legal works"98: This phrase is
usually interpreted in light of the Reformation debate between Protestants and Catholics
concerning ethical works and their meritorious value. While JEROME understood it to refer
to circumcision, the Sabbath, and other ceremonial laws, LUTHER and CALVIN insisted on
the entire Law as a truly world-historical misunderstanding. The context of Gal and recent
research99, however, suggest that the expression primarily envisions circumcision, dietary
laws, feast days observance, all of which viewed as identity markers distinguishing Jews
from Gentiles. Thus ex ergwn nomou is a technical clause akin to a code word for 'nomistic
service', occurring also in Rom 3:20.28. Paul, therefore, attacks this mode of existence, not
the works of righteousness. That the apostle was not thinking of the good works of a
baptized Christian is evidenced by the fact that his entire ethics are based on them! He
nowhere teaches a passive quietism.
"But through the faith of Jesus Christ" (dia. pi,stewj VIhsou/
Cristou/) can be rendered either as an objective genitive ("through faith in Jesus
Christ"), or as a subjective genitive ("through the faith of Jesus Christ"). Since either
translation is grammatically tenable, the question must be resolved by the context. The
majority of commentators prefer the objective genitive, arguing that the subsequent clause
("even we have believed in Christ Jesus", kai,100 h`mei/j eivj Cristo.n
VIhsou/n evpisteu,samen) determines the meaning here101. If one accepts the
subjective genitive, one reestablishes priorities: one is justified by the faith of Jesus
manifested in His obedience to God by His death on the cross. It is on the basis of that faith
95
95
Literally "by nature".
Some mss, most notably P46 omit de ("but").
97
Whereas Protestants have traditionally emphasized the forensic aspect (God declares that the
sinner is upright), Catholics have stressed the results of God's justifying activity (God's declaration
makes the sinner upright). This categorization of Protestant and Catholic positions, however, must be
nuanced in the light of recent ecumenical dialogue.
98
Translating evx e;rgwn no,mou, literally "from/by works of Law"; this instrumental sense of
evx ("by") is more appropriate here.
99
Ex.gr., E.P. SANDERS, J. DUNN.
100
This emphatic kai underlines that even Jews by birth have come to this new understanding of
justification.
101
In Rom 3:22.26; Phil 3:9 the subjective genitive would make eminent sense.
96
45
of the Lord that one believes in Christ. To support his argument, Paul quotes Psalm 143:2
(LXX 142102).
2:17: The preposition evn has a locative sense ("in") rather than an instrumental
sense ("through/by") because the divine acquittal involves more than an external judgment;
it indicates a transfer of the sinner from one sphere (no,moj) to another (Cristo,j).
"Even we were found to be sinners" (eu`re,qhmen kai. auvtoi.
a`martwloi,): Jewish Christians find themselves in the same situation as Gentiles:
relying on Christ-faith, rather than legal works, they stand outside the boundaries of the
Law, they are lawless.
"Then has Christ become sin's servant?" (a=ra Cristo.j a`marti,aj
dia,konojÈ): This phrase is construed as a question because the Greek particle ara has a
circumflex. A few mss, however, have ara without the circumflex which makes the clause
declarative ("then Christ has become sin's servant!"). The ensuing mh. ge,noito103
("let it not be!"), however, suggests that a question is intended here. It represents an
objection to the Apostle's teaching on justification: faith in Christ results in ethnic Jews
living as Gentile sinners because they no longer practice legal works such as the dietary
laws; consequently Christ has been turned into sin's agent!
2:18: The verse begins with ga,r ("for") and provides the first reason why the
teaching about righteousness does not make Christ sin's servant. The context of this passage
(the Antioch incident) suggests that what Paul tore down is the dietary legislation which
separated Jew and Gentile by forbidding table fellowship. "Transgressor" (parabath,j)
is used in relationship to the Law. Thus, transgressors of the Law will condemn Jews who
are transgressors of it (Rom 2:27). If Paul were to reestablish the dietary laws, he would
show that he is a transgressor of the Law since he no longer follows these laws, at least at
Antioch.
2:19: This verse, too, begins with ga,r, providing a second reason: Paul has died to
the Law, i.e., by association with Christ's death through baptism, Christians die
(avpoqnh,skein104) to the Law, cf. Rom 7:4 (= abandoning the Torah). This happened
because Christ died under the Law, cf. 3:13.
"In order that I might live to God" points to an eschatological reality, similar to the
concept found in 4Macc 7:19105: "Since they believe that they, like our patriarchs Abraham
In the LXX it reads o[ti ouv dikaiwqh,setai evnw,pio,n sou pa/j zw/n
("because before you no living thing will be justified", from the TM `yx'-lk' ^yn<p'l.
qD;c.yI-al{ yKi); Paul replaces pa/j zw/n ("all living") with pa/sa sa,rx ("all flesh")
and introduces e;x e;rgwn no,mou ("by works of the Law") substantially altering the meaning
of the original psalm verse, cf. Rom 3:20.
103
Phrase frequently used in Rom (cf. 3:4.6.31; 6:2.15; 7:13; 9:14; 11:1.11) after a question which
Paul thinks absurd.
104
Verb used twice in Gal: here in reference to himself, and in 2:21 in reference to Christ.
105
3/4 Maccabees are apocryphal Jewish writings, having nothing to do with the canonical 1/2
Macc. 3Macc instead tells the story of the persecution of the Jews under Ptolemy IV Philopator
(222-205 B.C.). The name of the book apparently comes from the similarities with the story of the
martyrdom of Eleazar and the Maccabean youths in 2Macc. It was authored by an Alexandrian Jew
writing in Greek (around 150 B.C.). 4Macc is a homily or philosophic discourse praising the
supremacy of pious reason over the passions. It is ascribed to Flavius Josephus by Eusebius and
Jerome.
102
46
and Isaac and Jacob, do not die to God, but live to God (zw/sin tw|/ qew/|).", cf.
Rom 5:10f, Lk 20:37f.
"I am crucified with Christ" (Cristw/| sunestau,rwmai106): same verb as in
the passion narratives when speaking of those who were crucified with Jesus107. In Rom 6:6
it is used in a sacramental sense: Baptism. While John the evangelist bases his gospel on the
“Logos”, Paul anchors his’ in the Crucified One: in fact, the all-encompassing integrating
narrative reality for Paul’s life and thought is cruciformity as an ongoing pattern of living in
and dying with Christ108.
2:20: The Greek emphasizes "I" and "Christ" by positioning them at the end of their
respective clauses (zw/ de. ouvke,ti evgw,( zh/| de. evn evmoi.
Cristo,j): when Paul was alive to the Law his self (evgw,) was the controlling factor of
his life; but now that he lives to God, Christ has replaced that self. At other times the words
are inverted, “Christ is in me”; this mutual compenetration between Christ and the Christian,
characteristic of Paul’s teaching, completes his discourse on faith.
"I live by the faith of the Son of God" (evn pi,stei zw/ th/| tou/
ui`ou/ tou/ qeou/)109: He "loved me and handed Himself over for me"; this is the
only place where the Apostle speaks of Christ loving him (cf. Rom 8:35). Whereas Rom
4:25 and 8:32 speak of God handing over Christ, here it is Christ who hands Himself over to
death. The entire passage is highly autobiographical.
2:21: "I have not nullified the grace of God" (ouvk avqetw/ th.n ca,rin
tou/ qeou/): no one nullifies a legally ratified will (avqete,w = to declare invalid a
legal enactment), i.e., God's grace. The Galatians are abandoning the One who called them
by grace, 1:15, and will be cut off from grace if they seek justification by the Law 110, 5:4. If
God's Son died for us, it was because the Law was incapable of bringing righteousness (eiv
ga.r
dia.
no,mou
dikaiosu,nh(
a;ra
Cristo.j
dwrea.n
avpe,qanen).
Conclusion: From a literary point of view, this unit 2:11-21 is a continuation of
Paul's speech to Peter, but it is apparent that the speech now has a broader audience in view
than Peter and those with him in Antioch. Just as Jesus' response to Nicodemus in Jn 3:1021 becomes a discourse for the whole Johannine community, so Paul's rebuke of Peter is
transformed into a theological statement, a careful exposition of the truth of the Gospel he
preaches.
106
The use of the perfect tense here means that he views his concrucifixion as an enduring state, cf.
Gal 5:24; 6:14.
107
Cf. Mt 24:44; Mk 15:32; Jn 19:32.
108
Four fundamental patterns of cruciformity could be identified: (1) faithful obedience, or
cruciform faith; (2) cruciformity as requisite prelude to resurrection and exaltation, or cruciform
hope; (3) voluntary self-emptying and self-giving regard for others, or cruciform love; (4) life-giving
suffering and transformative potency in weakness, or cruciform power.
109
Some mss (ex.gr., P46, B, D*, F, G) have "God and Christ" in place of "Son of God"; however,
Paul's more usual expression is "Son of God" (Rom 1:4; 1 Cor 1:9; Gal 1:16; 1 Thess 1:10, etc.).
110
N.B.: narrowly defined, the Law (no,moj) consists of the first five books of the OT
(Pentateuch), the Torah (hrwto); more broadly defined, it refers to the whole religious system of
Judaism, it is the revelation of God's holy will.
47
Pope Benedict XVI on Pauline Justification 111: The Roman Pontiff said that Martin Luther’s (14831546) teaching on justification is correct if faith is not opposed to charity. He noted that Paul’s conversion
experience on the road to Damascus changed his life radically: He began to regard all his merits, achievements
of a most honest religious career, as loss in face of the sublimity of knowledge of Jesus Christ. It is precisely
because of this personal experience of the relationship with Jesus that Paul places at the center of his Gospel
an irreducible opposition between two alternative paths to justice: one based on the works of the law, the other
founded on the grace of faith in Christ. The alternative between justice through the works of the law and
justice through faith in Christ thus becomes one of the dominant themes that runs through his letters.
But in order to understand this Pauline teaching one must clarify what is the “law” from which we have
been freed and what are those “works of the law” that do not justify. Already in the community of Corinth
there was the opinion, which will return many times in history, which consisted in thinking that it was a
question of the moral law, and that Christian freedom consisted therefore in being free from ethics. It is
obvious that this interpretation is erroneous: Christian liberty is not libertinism; the freedom of which St. Paul
speaks is not freedom from doing good. Instead, the Pope said, the law to which Paul refers is the collection of
behaviors extending from an ethical foundation to the ritual and cultural observances that substantially
determined the identity of the just man – particularly circumcision, the observance regarding pure food and
general ritual purity, the rules regarding observance of the Sabbath, etc. These observances served to protect
Jewish identity and faith in God; they were a defense shield that would protect the precious inheritance of the
faith.
But at the moment of Paul’s encounter with Christ, the Apostle understood that with Christ’s resurrection
the situation had changed radically. The wall between Israel and the pagans was no longer necessary (cf. Eph
2:14). It is Christ who protects us against polytheism and all its deviations; it is Christ who unites us with and
in the one God; it is Christ who guarantees our true identity in the diversity of cultures; and it is he who makes
us just. To be just means simply to be with Christ and in Christ. And this suffices. Other observances are no
longer necessary.
And it is because of this that Martin Luther’s expression sola fide (“by faith alone”)112 is true if faith is not
opposed to charity, to love. Faith is to look at Christ, to entrust oneself to Christ, to be united to Christ, to be
conformed to Christ, to his life. And the form, the life of Christ, is love; hence, to believe is to be conformed to
Christ and to enter into his love. Paul knows that in the double love of God and neighbor the whole law is
fulfilled. Thus the whole law is observed in communion with Christ, in faith that creates charity. We are just
when we enter into communion with Christ, who is love.
3:6-9: Abraham is presented as the ancestor of all believers. The promises given to him
are not tied to genealogy or race. In him the way of salvation is foreshadowed: faith! Moses
arrives on the stage some 430 years later, dealing with a people that was religiously
desensitized due to its prolongued sojourn among pagan peoples. This people was in need of
a long re-education under the rigors of the Torah spanning several centuries. Thus, the law
was meant as transitory and pedagogical from the beginning.
3:19-29: The purpose of the Law and the coming of faith: In 3:24 the Torah is
fittingly called the paidagwgo,j, the “pedagogue” of the people before Christ’s coming.
A pedagogue was a slave who accompanied the young Roman children to school and
looked after them but did not teach or tutor them, hence a guardian or monitor (cf.
paidagwgh/ma “plan/method of educating/training”).
4:4: Famously the only mention of the Mother of Christ in Paul’s letters: the gunh, has
a Johannine ring to it, cf. Jn 2:4; 19:26: Mary as the New Eve.
4:19: One of the passages in which the apostle appears to describe himself with maternal
imagery (te,kna mou – pa,lin wvdi,nw); cf. 1 Cor 3:2; 4:14; 1 Thess 2:7f; Heb
5:12f; 1 Pt 2:2.
111
112
Audience given at the Vatican, November 19, 2008.
Its derivatives are sola scriptura (“only the Scriptures”), and sola gratia (“by grace alone”).
48
4:21-31: The two covenants, Hagar and Sarah; an allegory on Christian Freedom:
Paul supports his appeal for the Gospel (1:6-9; 2:16; 3:2) by a further argument from
Scripture (cf. 3:6-18). It involves the relationship of Abraham to his wife Sarah, the freeborn
woman, and to Hagar, the slave woman, and the contrast between the sons born to each,
Isaac, child of promise, and Ishmael, son of Hagar (Gen 16.21). Only through Isaac is the
promise of God preserved. It is not enough to be genealogically descended from Abraham
like Ishmael, it is necessary to be spiritually descended as the result of a promise, like Isaac.
Thus, his birth prefigures the Christian rebirth. This allegory with its equation of the Sinai
covenant and Mosaic law with slavery and of the promise of God with freedom, Paul uses
only in light of previous arguments.
5:11: This could refer to his pre-Christian time, but more probably it was a charge of his
enemies (cf. Acts 16:1-3, Timothy’s circumcision; unlike the Gentile Titus, Timothy had a
Jewish mother).
5:19-23: One of the vice catalogues, the “works of the flesh” contrasted with the fruits of
the Holy Spirit in vv.22f.
6:11-18: A postscript in Paul’s own hand (cf. 1 Cor 16:21; 2 thess 3:17) summarizing his
appeals against this opponents, reasserting his missionary credentials.
6:11: The larger Greek letters make his message even more emphatic; some find a hint
of poor eyesight on his part, cf. 4:13, diV avsqe,neian th/j sarko.j!
6:17: Devotees of pagan gods as well as slaves were often branded by marks like
property (stigmata); Paul implies that his body bears the scars of his apostolic labors (2 Cor
11:22-31), such as floggings and stonings; he belongs to Christ113.
Galatians today: Gal has been and remains one of the most influential documents of
the NT, holding a pride of place since it, alongside Rom, provides the most extensive
exposition of Paul's doctrine of justification by faith apart from the Law. Thus it played an
important rôle both in AUGUSTINE's114 controversy with PELAGIUS115, and in the
Reformation debates of the sixteenth century. Both the Reformers and the Council Fathers
of Trent appealed to Gal as they formulated their doctrine on justification116. Fortunately,
113
N.B.: Mentioned in the Antiphon for Vespers on the Memorial of Saint Francis of Assisi, who
was one of the stigmatized saints.
114
It became clear to AUGUSTINE that someone had to write a complete refutation of the heretical
teaching of Pelagius; this he endeavored to do in his book De Natura et Gratia, PL 44, 247-290.
115
According to Pelagianism man is naturally quite capable of willing and doing what is good. Since
the fall of Adam has not really modified the status of the human race there is no such condition as
original sin and consequently no absolute need for baptism. Neither sanctifying grace nor actual
grace have any internal efficacy in regard to the working of the human will; God’s grace is but an
ornament of religious life, making virtuous action easier but is not absolutely required for human
salvation. Hence, the redemption of man by Christ is not, for Pelagius, the means of the soul’s
revivification. It is merely the sign of the adoption of man by God.
116
Lutherans are especially concerned to emphasize the forensic nature of justification (the
imputation of a righteousness which is received by faith), in order to safeguard the unconditional
character of God's promises in Christ. Catholics, on the other hand, underscore the fact that this
forensic act of acquittal, called justification, effects what it proclaims, namely the sanctification of
the sinner. Consequently, Protestants perceive Catholics as unwilling to rely totally upon the grace
49
the ecumenical dialogue (Vatican II) and the dedicated work of historians, systematicians
and exegetes has resulted in a new atmosphere of understanding (cf. common statement
Justification by faith: Lutherans and Catholics in Dialogue VII, 1985117). In a sense, then,
many of the old debates which characterized the sixteenth century have been bypassed by
new and better historical, biblical and systematic highways118.
Has a certain calm settled over the Galatian sea? No! All to the contrary, a new
storm has broken, so powerful that it is tossing both Tridentine and Reformation ships,
ladened with their traditional exegesis, to and fro. There is a new understanding of Gal
today: the subject is not whether or not humans, abstractly conceived, can by good deeds
earn enough merit to be declared righteous at the judgment; it is the condition on which
Gentiles enter the people of God. It is not a letter about individual salvation, but a defense of
the rights of Gentiles and their entrance requirements. Herewith, the legalism which Paul
opposes throughout this letter is a cultural hegemony rather than a legalistic morality. The
following innovative theses are proposed:
(1) The doctrine of justification by faith needs to be understood anew, not
abandoned.
(2) The social dimension of justification does not eliminate the personal dimension
of justification.
(3) Justification means to be "in Christ".
(4) The justified walk according to the Spirit.
(5) Paul's argument in Galatians is against fellow Jewish Christians (an intraChristian debate), not against Judaism as such119.
X. The Letter to the Romans, 57 A.D. (from Corinth, 3rd journey)
"The profoundest work in existence, the cathedral of Christian faith, the Mount
Everest of the New Testament, the unconquered peak of Scriptures, let the reader
beware!"120 Probably written about AD 57, during the three months stay in Corinth (cf. Acts
19:21; 20:3; Rom 15:22f; 16:1), prior to his going to Jerusalem to deliver the money
collected for the poor and from there to set out for Spain.
The origins of the church in Rome are shrouded in obscurity. The first to have brought
Christianity to the imperial capital were the pilgrims present during Pentecost in Jerusalem
(Acts 2:10), who had converted that day and returned as Jewish-Christians. The apostle
Peter is commonly believed to have organized the Roman church. A large congregation
existed here by the time Paul wrote his letter. His captivity epistles, as well as Mark, Luke,
Acts and 1 Peter were written here.
of Jesus Christ (cf. legalism of the Judaizers), and Catholics view Protestants as denying the
importance of the ethical life and the sacraments.
117
"Our entire hope of justification and salvation rests on Christ Jesus and the Gospel whereby the
Good News of God's merciful action in Christ is made known: we do not place our ultimate trust in
anything other than God's promise and saving work in Christ." n. 16.
118
See AUNE, D. ed., Rereading Paul Together, Grand Rapids 2006.
119
Cf. MATERA, Galatians, pp. 26-32.
120
ELLIS, P.F., Seven Letters of Paul, Collegeville 1982, p. 200.
50
Why Paul wrote has never been satisfactorily explained. His other letters to
communities he himself had founded. But he had never been to Rome, and the Church there
was already flourishing and influential, not to mention the presence of Saint Peter in the
city. Since he had no pastoral history in Rome, his letter turns out to be highly theoretical
and theological. His own explication: Rom 1:11f; 15:14-21; 16:25f. Did he attempt to
defend the Jewish Christians, his compatriots, there from the contempt of the Gentile
Christians121? Paul emphasizes the unity of the body in 12:3ff and defends those with weak
consciences (14:1–15:13), he expounds on the enigma of the Jew's rejection of Jesus Christ.
Or did Paul need Rome's support and influence for his preaching in Spain (15:28), given the
accusations that he was not a genuine apostle? Is it an "Apologia pro vita sua"? In any case,
Paul used the opportunity to achieve several objectives:
i) to prevent the infestation by the Judaizers with their teaching of salvation through
works and law;
ii) to defend himself as an apostle;
iii) to offer an in-depth exposition of the relationships faith/law, law/liberty,
Jew/Gentiles122, and God's plan of universal salvation in Christ.
And so, having finished his work in the East, he set his eyes on the West for his planned
trip to Spain through Rome (Rom 15:23f; Acts 19:21). To prepare his personal arrival in
Rome he sends this letter to expound on the program of his gospel, excusing himself with
his special mission as the apostle of the gentiles, to confirm them in the faith preached by
Peter.
Literary techniques: Paul's statements are not dogmatically arranged but in
fragmentation and invariably interwoven with others. However, there is method: the use of
structural format that consists of a chiasm. Also the concentric circles express fundamental
ideas123. Under each tableau substantially the same topic is treated but from different aspects
and details. The recognition of the following four concentric-circle presentations clarifies
the thought:
a) contrast "humanity without Christ/humanity with Christ" (1:18–4:25);
b) contrast "Adamic humanity/Second-Adam humanity" (5:12-21);
c) contrast "reign of sin/ reign of Christ" (6:1-23);
d) contrast "unspiritual/spiritual" (7:9-25).
Furthermore, the use of polarity presentation to highlight the positive pole of his
argument (contrasting of opposites), cf. for instance 5:12-21.
Epistolary structure: follows conventional pattern with clearly recognizable
Introduction (1:1-17) and Conclusion (15:14–16:24) and a long theoretical and practical
exposition of the Gospel as the Body. Three main sections (setting apart the separate final
parenesis 12:1–15:13) in 1:18–11:36:
121
Jewish Christians had become a minority following the the decree of Caesar Claudius ( AD 49)
expelling Jews from that city.
122
By the year AD 57 Paul had come to realize that, contrary to all expectations and OT promises,
the Jews were not accepting the Gospel of Christ. Theologically this posed a monumental problem
(see Mk 4; Mt 13; Jn 12:37ff) concerning God's fidelity to His promises to the Israelites.
123
Cf. Isa 40-55; Dan 2.7-12.
51
1:1-17: Introduction
i) 1:18–4:25: the inclusion of Gentiles by faith
ii) 5:1–8:39: the sure hope of salvation through faith
iii) 9:1–11:36: the inclusion of Israel
12:1–15:13: Diatribic parenesis
15:14–16:27: Conclusion
Perspectives for interpretation: Paul’s fundamental thought is that Christianity is
universal, that all of humankind is called to be part of this religion for the sake of their
salvation in Christ Jesus.
First, demanded are enlarged perspectives. In Rom 1-11 Paul theologizes about
humanity on a universal, collective, and timeless scale, before, at the time of, and for all
ages after Christ. He contemplates God's dealing with man from Genesis to Parousia
(Protology – Eschatology), including the final judgment and salvation.
Second, the pivotal distinction is not between collectivity (corporate personality) and
individuality, but between humanity "without Christ" and "with Christ".
Third, humanity "without Christ" (5:1-11) is symbolized by Adam, the eponymous
ancestor of sinful mankind, progenitor of unspiritual man, as opposed to Jesus, the new
Adam, ancestor of spiritual man (5:12-21; 8:1-39).
Fourth, the assumption that there are three ways in which humanity can approach
and please God to achieve justification and salvation:
i) the human-centered system of philosophy according to which persons can
know God and what pleases Him by using the God-given intellectual faculties. This system
does hardly work, 1:18-32.
ii) the human-centered system of salvation according to which persons can
achieve salvation as payment for accomplishing the works of Law, a system not working
either as demonstrated in 2:1–3:20.
iii) the God-given system of justification and salvation through faith in Jesus
Christ. God offers to all the gift of faith and the consequent ability to know and please Him
(1:16f; 3:21-26; true for Jews and Gentiles 4:1-25; 5:1-11; 5:12–7:25; 8:1-39). Objections to
this way: How to explain the existence of the Law (3:27-31; 4:1-25)? Did God fail to keep
His promises to Israel (since they did not accept Christ, 9:1ff; chs. 9-11)?
It is therefore important never to become so intent on the details as to lose sight of
the context as a whole. In Paul's mind one thought complements another.
The integrity of the letter: Some textual evidence of shorter editions of Rom, one
consisting of chs.1-14124, another one of chs.1-15. The very important P46 places the
doxology 16:25-27 at the close of ch.15, thus providing some evidence for the existence of a
fifteen-chapter edition to which ch.16 would have been added at a later time. Long-standing
hypothesis that 1-15 was an 'encyclical letter' to which ch.16 was added with personalized
greetings for different communities. However, most interpreters today are convinced that
the canonical form of Rom (minus the concluding doxology [16:25-27] and, possibly, the
admonition in 16:17-20) represents the original form of the epistle sent to Rome.
124
Used by the second cent. writer MARCION, reflected also in some Latin Vulgate mss.
52
A more detailed subdivision of Rom to introduce the exegesis of a few pericopes125:
Part I (1:1–4:25): Paul's thesis (faith in Christ is salvation of all)
A (1:1-17): Greetings, thanksgiving, thesis
B (1:18–3:20): Jews and Gentiles need God's justice
A' (3:21–4:25): Thesis summarized
Part II (5:1–11:36): God's love founds man's hope
A (5:1-11): God sends His Son to die for sinners
B (5:12–7:25): Faith vs. Law
A' (8:1–11:36): God's love does not exclude Jews
Part III (12:1–16:27): Parenesis
A (12:1–13:14): Exhortations
B (14:1–15:13): Strong and weak
A' (15:14–16:27): Conclusion, greetings
Exegesis of 1:1-17 (Greetings, thanksgiving, thesis): Long greeting (inscriptio), 1:1-7,
followed by thanksgiving section, 1:8-15; then he states his thesis: faith in Christ is
salvation for all, 1:16-17. This will be taken up again in 3:21–4:25 and in 5:1–11:36.
1:1: Identification as Pau/loj dou/loj Cristou/ VIhsou/, as a Christian
("slaves" to their common Ku,rioj), aligning him with key figures in scriptural tradition
(Moses, Joshua, David, Prophets in general, etc.); then as an Apostle (avpo,stoloj)126.
He received this apostleship from Christ Himself (v.5); set apart (avfwrisme,noj) for
the Gospel (cf. Isa 49:1; Jer 1:5; Gal 1:15).
1:2: Logical liaison between OT and NT, Gospel already foretold
(proephggei,lato) by Prophets (cf. Jer 31:31-34; 2 Cor 3:1ff). Scriptures (OT:
gra,faij agi,aij) are addressed to the present age (Eschaton).
1:3-4: Formulaic summary of the Gospel; two-stage presentation of Messianic career
in phraseological parallelism. Paul expresses his belief in dual nature of divine person of
Jesus (creedal formula): human (genome,nou evk spe,rmatoj Daui.d kata.
sa,rka) and divine (tou/ o`risqe,ntoj ui`ou/ qeou/ evn duna,mei
kata. pneu/ma a`giwsu,nhj). Adding the noun duna,mei to o`risqe,ntoj
shows that the resurrection was an act whereby Jesus manifested His divine nature (Christ
rose only because God raised him through the Holy Spirit127, establishing Him in glory as
Ku,rioj). In fact, for Paul, the resurrection is the cause of Jesus’ elevation to divine
Sonship. See EGGER on tradition Criticism on 1:3-4128.
1:5-6: Apostle to bring about "the obedience of faith among all nations" (cf. Deut
6:4-6), that is, to obey Jesus on the basis of trust (subjective genitive: the obedience implicit
in the virtue of faith; cf. 6:15-23). Paul's scope is universal. Roman Christians are a mainly
125
Cf. ELLIS, P.F., Seven Pauline Letters, Collegeville 1982, p. 204.
The term is used in classical Greek primarily of ships being sent out for cargo or military
expeditions. Infrequently it is used to refer to a single person as an envoy or emissary. It appears
only once in the LXX (1Kgs 14:6) where it renders the verb xlv, shalákh, “to send”.
127
Theological maxim: Operationes Trinitatis ad extra indivisae sunt.
128
EGGER, Methodology 164-177.
126
53
Gentile community (evn oi-j evste kai. u`mei/j klhtoi. VIhsou/
Cristou/).
1:7: Addressees, "saints" not primarily because of personal moral quality, but
through membership of a "holy people" (closeness to God). Ca,rij u`mi/n kai.
eivrh,nh: Roman/Hellenistic greeting ('Ave', 'Salve'), and Semitic together (~wlv).
1:8-17: Thanksgiving section mentions two themes: i) desire to visit Rome (vv. 1013; cf. 15:14-33), ii) eagerness to preach the Gospel there. In vv. 16-17 Paul defines the
Gospel, before he explains its precise nature at length in 1:18–11:36.
v.9: By pneuma (spirit) Paul sometimes means the highest element in a human
being (suggesting a deep affinity between the human spirit and the Spirit of God that
stimulates and guides), distinguished from the sa,rx (flesh), the lower element, and from
the yuch, (related to sw/ma, cf. 1 Thess 5:23; Heb 4:12).
v.13: Stylistic figure of substitution (litotes): “I would not have you be ignorant” =
negation of contrary instead of positive statement129.
v.16-17 Theme: He is proud of the Gospel (Ouv ga.r evpaiscu,nomai)
because it is not just a philosophical or theoretical message, but imbued with God's saving
power for everyone (du,namij ga.r qeou/ evstin eivj swthri,an
panti. tw/| pisteu,onti). Chronological priority of "the Jew" (VIoudai,w|
te prw/ton)130, as expounded on in 4:1-25 (Abraham's faith in Gen 15:5); they turned
last, however, in accepting it (cf. chs. 9-11). Faith is absolutely crucial: panti. tw/|
pisteu,onti. Dikaiosu,nh is an OT noun meaning 'righteousness', 'justice',
'justification', 'uprightness', 'honesty', 'holiness', 'virtue', stemming from the Covenant
theology (fidelity of partners to bilateral contract, living up to their obligations). Thus, God
is just by saving, protecting, cherishing covenanted people (in sending Jesus to die for us, cf.
5:1-11 = God's righteousness); man is justified in responding with loyalty, love, faith and
obedience. 'Righteousness' becomes 'commitment'. Paul's quotation of Hab 2:4 (~O de.
di,kaioj evk pi,stewj zh,setai) is his way of saying that the way of faith is
now and always has been the way to salvation (cf. 3:27–4:25)131.
Exegesis of 1:18-32 (Man's iniquity, God's wrath): Paul appears to digress, but it is really
another aspect of what has been revealed (avpoklu,ptetai), i.e., the situation of
'humanity without Christ'.
1:18: Overarching thematic statement. In the saving event the other side of the coin:
"the wrath of God" (ovrgh. qeou/, rare in Paul, an apocalyptic term, mentioned in Last
Judgment contexts, cf. Mt 25:31-46; should be interpreted metaphorically) against all
ungodliness and wickedness of men (i.e., God's aversion to humanity's depravity). This
situation would remain if it were not for God's love in sending His Son to die for such sinful
people.
129
EGGER, Methodology 73.
Judaism was always conscious of its religious excellence: (i) Monotheism, (ii) Torah, (iii)
Messianic expectation.
131
Cf. QUARLES, “Faith”.
130
54
1:19-23: Gentile humanity has inexcusably sinned because, despite their ability to
know God through natural philosophy (vv.19-20133), they not only failed to honor God
(v.21, sin engenders mental darkness) but went to the other extreme of turning to senseless
idols (v.22), lapse into idolatry; an adequate and timeless description of the pagan world.
Paul has no concept of a 'sincere atheism', he stands within the biblical tradition of Psa 14:1
and 53:2: "The fool has said in his heart, 'There is no God'". 1:20 contains an oxymoron134
(avo,rata ... kaqora/tai) that brings out the paradox that the visible things enable a
spiritual "seeing" (perception, cf. the qualifying participial phrase noou,mena) of the
invisible divine attributes, as a remarkable parallel to the Greek philosophical tradition135.
1:24-32: The word "gave them up" (pare,dwken) occurs three times (vv.24,26,28,
like three textual waves or hinges) signifying what happens when humanity turns away from
God, and concentrates on godless values and pursuits. Rupture of divine-human relations.
The exclusion of God from man’s life results in an utter derailment of human reason.
Whether Paul means a direct intervention or the ultimate psychological result of
Godlessness is not stated. The Hebrew mind contemplated all causality to be connected with
God. Paul's shocking description of immorality in vv.24-32 (including a list of vices in
vv.28-31) mirrors modern society.
Verses 26-27 constitute the most direct reference to the sinfulness of homosexuality
in the NT. Paul sees it as a striking example of the distortion of the human being and life
resulting from man’s rebellion against God and nature136. Incidentally, it was “politically
incorrect” to speak about this issue in the environment of Roman paganism!
2:1-11: As a first step in his demonstration that Jews enjoy no real moral supremacy
over Gentiles, Paul explains that the final judgment will be a review of performance and not
of privilege.
2:17-29: Mere possession of laws is no evidence of virtue; by eliminating
circumcision as an elitist moral sign, Paul clears away the last obstacle to his presentation of
justification through faith without claims based on the receipt of circumcision and its
attendant legal obligations.
132
Exegesis of 3:21-31 (Propitiation in Christ's Blood): The heart of Paul's redemption
theology of faith.
Elsewhere in the NT gnw,stoj means "known" (cf. Lk 2:44; Jn 18:15; Acts 1:19); here, as
occasionally in the LXX, the sense is "able to be known".
133
Theologically significant in its own terms: VATICAN COUNCIL I, opposing fideism in its dogmatic
constitution "On the Catholic Faith", cites the text in support of its teaching that God can be known
by the natural light of human reason apart from positive revelation (cf. DS 3004).
134
A figure of speech by which a locution produces an effect by seeming self-contradiction.
135
Cf. PS.-ARIST., De Mundo 399b.20: "though by nature invisible to every mortal being, he (God)
is seen through works."
136
To claim that the Apostle was right in forbidding acts “contrary to nature”, but was ignorant of
the fact that many people are “by nature” homosexual and therefore should act according to their
God-given homosexuality, is unacceptable; a recent study (2007) by Edart-Schenker-Himbaza
confirms that biblical texts clearly teach that the above vice is wrong, cf. Gen 19; Lev 18:22; 20:13;
Judges 19; 1 Tim 1:10; 1 Cor 6:9 (Paul links homosexuality to idolatry).
132
55
3:21: God's saving power (dikaiosu,nh) is manifested (pefanh,rwtai137)
apart from the Law (cwri.j no,mou) when the Law (= OT) is understood only as a
means of salvation through works. Although manifested apart from the Law – through the
expiatory death of Christ (cf. vv.24-26) – this does not mean that there was nothing in the
Law about faith (cf. 1:2.17; 4:1-25).
3:22f: The condition for all – Jews and Gentiles – to become justified is to believe in
Jesus, because all have sinned (cf. 1:18–3:20) and all alike have fallen short of God's
glory138.
3:24-25a: Justification (renewed friendship with God = ca,rij139, see 2 Cor 5:1421) is the act of redemption. God is efficient cause of justification; grace its formal cause;
the redemption of Christ its meritorious cause140. Important words141 here are: i) "as a gift"
(dwrea,n), ii) "redemption" (avpolu,trwsij142), iii) "expiation" (i`lasth,rion).
Paul inserts "gift" to counter the Judaizer's insistence on works. "Redemption" is used in the
same sense as in the liberation of the Israelites from Egyptian slavery (Exo 1-19). And only
in Jesus' "expiation" humanity can see how abhorrent sin is to God.
3:25b-26: In the past, God has as it were overlooked sin as if it did not matter. But
passion and death of Christ show that He is not indifferent. It proves: i) how seriously the
all-holy God looks upon sin in His righteousness, and ii) how much He loves humanity,
appreciated by those who believe.
3:27f: Paul digresses briefly in diatribe style143 to address the Judaizing adversaries:
if one is redeemed by faith (as a gift), then all "boasting" (kau,chsij)144, i.e., relying on
one's works to merit salvation, is excluded145. Excluded on the principle of faith, for
boasting and believing are mutually exclusive.
3:29-30: Paul also attacks the Jewish claim on God; God's choice of Israel was not
based on anything she could pride herself (cf. Jer 9:23f). God is the God of Gentiles, too. It
follows that in matters of justification and salvation, both Jews and Gentiles are in the same
position before God.
137
An eschatological word, synonymous with 'revealed' in 1:16-18. Important to capture the sense of
the Greek perfect: an action performed in the past (death of Christ) having an effect that lingers on
(proclamation of the Gospel).
138
There is a close association of "righteousness" and "glory" in Paul: "glory" is that which equips
human beings to share the eternal life of God, the original intent of the Creator in their regard.
139
Paul's concept of "grace" (ca,rij) stands in continuity with the OT tradition, yet has a dynamic
character, functioning later in Rom 5:20f as a personified, liberating divine power set over against
the (likewise personified) power of sin (a`marti,a).
140
Cf. COUNCIL OF TRENT, Sess. VI. Cap. 7.
141
Some authors argue that the rather tortured syntax and the occurrence of language otherwise not
found in Paul (hilasterion, paresis, endeixis) point to a liturgical or creedal piece taken over by him,
embroidered and expanded for his own purposes.
142
In secular Greek used for ransoming from slavery of captives and prisoners of war; in the NT it
has an eschatological sense of release from bondage and captivity (cf. Lk 21:28).
143
Bitter denunciation.
144
An important theme in the Pauline corpus: i) negative sense when what one relies upon is human
achievement unrecognizing of God; ii) positive sense when it rests upon God or His grace (cf. 1 Cor
1:31; echoing Jer 9:23ff.
145
See ITO, “NOMOS”.
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3:31: Paul's third argument vs. the Judaizers is a refutation of their serious objection
to this faith system. It would run somewhat as follows: "if this faith system is right, the OT
is wrong and God has been proved a deceiver!" Paul's reply is brilliant: never negating the
OT he affirms that faith upholds (i`sta,nomen, affirms) it. For faith 'hears' in the
no,moj (understood as OT) a different message, one that points to the failure of 'works'.
And those who through faith are in Christ can attain the fulfillment of the righteousness
required by the Law.
Excursus: The legacy of Origen’s commentary on Romans146
Origen (ca. 185 – ca. 254 A.D.) seems to understand the Pauline slogan “justification by
faith” as synécdoche (pars pro toto). In the Pauline text the part (faith) is put for the whole
(postbaptismal renewal). We are saved by faith, to be sure, but by a faith that is not
exclusive of other theological virtues such as hope, obedience, love and holiness. God has
made Christ to be our justice (1 Cor 1:30), so that we are saved by his justice, but Scripture
identifies Christ with his other virtues and operations, such as sanctification, redemption,
wisdom, justice, mercy and love. Therefore we are saved by all these operations of Christ as
well. This synecdochical understanding helps to explain why Origen can say that not merely
faith but also all the other virtues can be reputed for righteousness. For him justification is
more than a non-imputation of past sins: it is an effectual and progressive sanctification in
which sin is expelled and grace (sc. Christ), in all its aspects, is established in the believer’s
soul.
In his commentary on Psalm 31 St. Augustine of Hippo (354-430 A.D.) found Origen
helpful to make the point that James and Paul do not contradict each other. From Origen
Augustine apparently derived the metaphors that faith is the beginning, root, and foundation
of justification from which good works grow by means of divine grace. There is an intimate
and organic connection between faith and good works as the two complementary conditions
of salvation that must not be separated.
Origen’s influence on the Catholic exegetical tradition is immense and arguably
unsurpassed: it does not seem entirely misleading to describe Catholic exegesis of Romans
as “footnotes to Origen”. This receptivity to Origen is found among both high Augustinians
such as William of St. Thierry (†1148), and scholars like Erasmus of Rotterdam (†1536),
who attempted to assimilate the Greek and Latin exegetical tradition and give less emphasis
to the peculiarly Augustinian categories for interpreting Paul.
Ch. 4: This chapter clearly proves how Paul portrayes Abraham as the more relevant person
in Israel’s history as compared to Moses. In Abraham the principle of faith antedates the
Mosaic law. He wished that his Jewish brethren were more Abrahamic than Mosaic in their
spirituality and in their reading and understanding of the Scriptures: 4:16, “he is the father
of us all”, evk pi,stewj VAbraa,m( o[j evstin path.r pa,ntwn
h`mw/n. Abraham foreshadows in his history the way of faith to be followed by Christians:
“verba Dei facta sunt”, AUGUSTINE.
146
Originally written in Greek between 244 and 246, the first patristic commentary on the epistle.
57
Exegesis of 5:12-21 (Adam/Christ): The Adam-face of humanity proves that all need Christ
and experience liberation through him. Reflection on Original Sin, universally affecting all
mankind.
5:12: “Wherefore” (dia touto) simple connective to bridge over the transition
from what has preceded (vv.12ff not a conclusion of vv.1-11).
“As” (wsper) introduces the thought, which, however, is not completed in this
verse. The defective sentence structure (anacoluthon), is a mark of Paul’s deeper feelings,
being carried away by other thoughts that he forgets its proper termination. V.12 is
continued actually only in vv.18ff.
Adam typifies the human person without Christ147. Like Adam, all sinned (cf. 1:18–
3:20). The penalty was death (cf. Gen 3). Paul notes that since death has been universal, it
follows that sin has been universal. He interprets Adam theologically as representing sinful
humanity. He presupposes in his readers an acceptance of a tradition 148 that saw Adam as
responsible for the onset of death in the human race (original sin149), and for a hereditary
sinfulness as well. Precisely how the legacy of sin was passed on from Adam to his
postlapsarian descendants Paul does not explain. Unlike Wis 2:24, Paul does not ascribe the
entry of death to the devil. He does conceive of a solidarity in sin.
The final clause evfV w-| pa,ntej h[marton, v.12d, presents the chief
exegetical difficulty of the passage centering upon the precise interpretation of this
ambiguous connective phrase:
In his classic formulation of the doctrine of Original Sin St. Augustine (“by propagation,
not by imitation”, cf. Council of Trent, sessio quinta), following the Vulgate “in quo omnes
peccaverunt”, found a reference to anticipatory sinning “in Adam” affecting all human
beings prior to any personal sin (“all have sinned in Adam”). In the Greek, however, the
allusion to Adam (di' henos), v.12a, is too far removed to function as an antecedent for ef
w in v.12d, understood as a relative. Also, if Paul had meant “in whom” (in quo), he would
have written evn tw/| VAda.m as in 1 Cor 15:22.
It seems better, with the Greek Fathers and most modern scholars, to render v.12d ef w
by “since, because, inasmuch as, on the basis that”, NeoVulgate: “eo quod omnes
peccaverunt”. These latter authorities rightly observe that w, as a masculine pronoun, should
naturally refer to the noun nearest to it, namely, to death or world, v.12c. Thus, v.12d is
taken to refer to actual sins of individuals in an emphatic causal sense ("death passed to all
on this basis, namely, that all have sinned") to stress upon the nexus between sin and death.
The death which came with Adam’s fault affects all men, not alone because of Adam’s
transgression, but because all men have in fact sinned and are responsible for their death (cf.
3:23). Greek Fathers, therefore, understood it here as introducing a condition which has
already been fulfilled, i.e., “given that”; our personal sins ratify Adam’s disobedience.
Misgiving: the clause so interpreted seems to introduce an overload of causality regarding
147
The first actual sin was committed by Eve, yet Adam was constituted by God not only the
physical, but also the moral head of the human race; and consequently the sin committed by him has
been transmitted along with human nature to all mankind, as an inheritance passes from a father to
his children.
148
Cf. Gen 3:19; 4 Ezra 3:7; 2 Enoch 30:16; etc.
149
The Council of Trent provided the sensus plenior of Paul’s teaching in Rom 5:12, when it defined
original sin as involved in that passage; cf. OTT, L., Fundamentals of Catholic Dogma, Rockford
1974, pp. 106-114.
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the onset of death (consequence of Adam's sin, v.15a-c, and of one's own responsible
sinning, v.15d)150.
However the expression may be rendered, Paul’s meaning is clear, namely, that all men
have sinned in Adam, and so have inherited the evil consequences of his sin (the only
exception to this rule is found in the Immaculate Conception of the Blessed Virgin Mary,
who, although born of Adam, was preserved by special privilege from every stain of
original sin)151.
5:13: (Clarificatory note on the Law, vv.13-14) Sin here is the disposition to sin (not
so much the act), the bent of the Ego to assert itself against God. Sin could be counted as
such only after the Law had been laid down.
5:14a: There was no Sinai Law code until the time of Moses. Death proves that all,
like Adam, had sinned.
5:14b: Adam is seen as a type of Christ only in relation to humanity. As Adam
typifies sinful humanity, so analogously Christ typifies redeemed humanity.
5:15-21: Section vv.15-17 consists of two parallel waves (vv.15.17), similar in form
and content (short thesis-like introduction, then a long conditional sentence [protasis "for
if", eiv ga,r, and apodosis "much more", pollw/ ma/llon]). Death is vastly
overbalanced by the gift of redemption (disobedience/obedience; sin/grace), as Paul shows
in polarity presentation. The legacy of Christ (righteousness and life) outweighs the legacy
of Adam (sin and death). V.18 resumes the comparison Adam/Christ. The obedience in one
human life gave expression to a divine love capable of overcoming and setting in reverse the
whole destructive history of sin and selfishness from the beginning to the end of time. God’s
act in Christ is in total contrast to the disastrous effects of the virus of sin that invaded
humanity through Adam’s crime.
Comparing, therefore, Adam and Christ, the apostle shows that, whereas through the
former we were divested of grace and lost our supernatural gifts and our rights to heaven,
through the latter we have been reinstated in God’s favor and enriched with benefits even
more abundant in many ways than those which were lost in Adam. See the collect to the
Mass In Die Nativitatis Domini: “Deus, qui humanae substantiae dignitatem et mirabiliter
condidisti, et mirabilius reformasti, da, quaesumus, nobis eius divinitatis esse consortes, qui
humanitatis nostrae fieri dignatus est particeps.”
Exegesis of ch. 8 (Life in the Spirit):
A Triumph through the power of the Spirit, 8:1-13
B Liberation of the world (sons of God the Father, brothers of Christ), 8:14-30
A' Triumph through the love of God in Jesus Christ, 8:31-39
In following this parallel structure one can compare sections A and A': in each, the
dominant note is expressed negatively (no condemnation for those who are in Christ), and
150
Also, had Paul wished to indicate a standard causal connection, there were simpler ways to say it
(with gar, or dioti for instance).
151
For a comprehensive critical review of the numerous alternative explanations given down the
ages, see esp. CRANFIELD, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans, 2
vols., Edinburgh 21979, 1.274-81.
59
positively (triumph through the power of the Spirit). This was the thesis of 5:1-11; here it is
developed at length, with many parallels.
SECTION A (Spirit):
8:1: Speaking from the perspective of the Last Judgment (cf. 1:18–
3:20) Paul underlines the triumph of those who are "in Christ", evn Cristw/|
VIhsou/, allowing themselves to be led by the Spirit.
8:2: By Law (no,moj) here, Paul means a way of life152, a system of religion that
succeeds as opposed to the system of the Jews (who put their confidence in themselves and
in their obedience to the law of Moses)153.
8:3-8: Paul's key theological category flesh (sa,rx) means the propensity of human
beings to follow their own egotistical inclinations and values perverting the way of life of
the Spirit. In His Son God conquered sin and thereby liberated people from their slavery to
sin, i[na to. dikai,wma tou/ no,mou plhrwqh/| evn h`mi/n (so that the
just requirement of the Law, i.e., righteousness, might be fulfilled in us).
In vv.5-8 Paul defines what he means by flesh (focusing on worldly values154) and
Spirit (power of God that turns us to God's values).
8:9: A warning: the Spirit of Christ is the same as the Spirit of God, but it is only
through Christ that the Spirit is sent and received (cf. Jn 14:25-27; 15:26; 16:7-15). Thus,
the Spirit not only influences our action, but also our being, he dwells in us.
8:10: Union with Christ is essential, guaranteeing a new life to the individual dia.
dikaiosu,nhn, "because of righteousness", i.e., because of the gift of justification
through faith in Christ (cf. 5:1)155.
8:11: The warning "if" (eiv de,) of v.9 is repeated in relation to the resurrection
of Christians: the Spirit is its pledge "if He dwells in us".
8:12-13: Since the flesh has done nothing for us, we owe it nothing. Paul takes it for
granted that we are henceforth debtors (ovfeile,tai) of the Spirit. He then concludes
this section with another exhortation and another "if" (cf. vv.9.11).
SECTION B (Father): 8:14-17: We are sons of God by adoption (ui`oi. qeou/
eivsin); we are not merely images (Gen 1:26f) but now also children of God, our greatest
dignity! Paul’s intent is to emphasize the fact that, as sons, we are heirs of God to inherit
"Law of the Spirit of life": the first Genitive (tou/ pneu,matoj) is taken as epexegetic: "the
Law which consists in the Spirit"; the second (th/j zwh/j) as qualitative: "leading to eternal
life".
153
The variant reading "set me free" (A, D), is to be rejected as an assimilation to the sustained use
of the first person in 7:7-25. Within the diatribe style Paul responds to the anguished "I" of that
passage.
154
In this context it does not mean that there is anything intrinsically evil about the body-person as
created by God, but refers to that aspect whereby persons misuse their God-given gift of freedom to
oppose the will of God.
155
It is central to Paul's argument that the righteousness in question be the ethical righteousness
created in believers through the operation of the Spirit. The Protestant interpretive tradition is
generally reluctant to accept this on the grounds that it would seem to introduce an "un-Pauline"
doctrine of "merits". But Paul has sufficiently allowed for the sense of divine initiative by the
passive expression of the notion of "fulfillment" (of due righteousness) in v.4 (plhrwqh/).
152
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eternal life (cf. Gal 4:6-7). One proof of sonship (pneu/ma ui`oqesi,aj156) is the
liturgical acclamation157 under the influence of the Spirit: "Abba-Father" (Abba o`
path,r)158, vv.15b-16. To be glorified with Him means first to suffer with Him (ei;per
sumpa,scomen i[na kai. sundoxasqw/men).
8:18-23: Suffering in v.17 turns Paul's mind to that subject in vv.18-27; he will
return to the sonship in vv.28-30. Between the present time and the Parousia not only the
faithful but also the whole created universe waits with eager longing
(avpokaradoki,a159) for the glorious consummation160. Because material creation
subjected by God to the human creation (cf. Gen 1:26f) has shared in the human fall and
futility161. Its liberation (evleuqeri,a) will coincide with man's redemption (vv.20ff),
putting an end to its "groaning in travail" (sustena,zei162 kai. sunwdi,nei163).
Together they long for the Parousia, the final acceptance into God's family, v.29, and the
redemption of their bodies in the resurrection.
8:24f: This is still the time of discipleship, the time of testing164, of hope165.
8:26f: The Spirit is present to help us166 with inexpressible, unutterable sighs
(stenagmoi/j avlalh,toij)167. He readily understands the otherwise inarticulate
prayers of those with the gift of tongues (evraunw/n ta.j kardi,aj oi=den ti,
156
Paul's metaphorical usage of huiothesia with respect to the eschatological status of believers
draws upon a Jewish messianic tradition that developed out of the throne promise to David (2 Sam
7:14) understood as a case of adoption. It is unlikely that it refers solely to the act (of adoption)
without connotation of the resultant status (sonship).
157
"Cry out" (kra,zomen), cf. Gal 4:6, denotes a loud cry, conveys the sense of the confidence
with which the cry to God is uttered – in contrast to "fear" mentioned earlier.
158
Cf. Gal 4:6; Mk 14:36; Aramaic emphatic used as a vocative. Its usage in Christian circles must
certainly go back to the very early Aramaic-speaking community. The fact that in the Aramaic
Targum to Ps 89:27 the Davidic King Messiah addresses God as "Abba" could suggest that Christian
usage of the cry originated in the community's sense of itself as the community of the Messiah now
identified with the Risen Christ. It expresses a relationship of intimacy with the Father.
159
Strictly, a watching with the head (ka,ra = head) stretched forward alertly, i.e., a most earnest
expectation.
160
The directional sense conveyed by the final prepositional phrase eis hemas, suggests that
believers are the end-point of a process ("glorification") emanating from something outside of
themselves (God).
161
Mataio,thti (cf. LXX "vanity" [Ecclesiastes]) means "purposelessness" in the sense of
lacking anything to give usefulness to existence. The parallel with "bondage to decay" in v.21
implies a sense of mortality as well.
162
Metaphor: to sigh and groan together, all share pain in common, picturing creation awaiting
painfully its regeneration.
163
Metaphor: to suffer birth pangs in common with others, agony like in childbirth.
164
Upomonh, "endurance" is Paul's characteristic virtue of Christian life in the present.
165
Elpi,j refers not to the subjective virtue of hope in this instance but, objectively, to hope's
content: full salvation.
166
The sense of the double compound verb sunantilamba,netai is that of lifting another's
burden by sharing responsibility for the task in hand, cf. Lk 10:40.
167
Probably alluding to the gift of tongues rather than to any lack of knowledge of how to pray, since
the OT is full of prayer patterns.
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to. fro,nhma tou/ pneu,matoj). Noteworthy, then, is the triple “groaning”: v. 22
– creation; v. 23 – us; v. 26 – the Holy Spirit!
8:28-30: God, according to the Jewish way of thinking, is behind everything that
happens. V.28 sets the tone for what Paul says about predestination in vv.29a.30a:
understood as God's arbitrary decision to save some and damn others, independently of how
they respond in faith to Him, predestination is unworthy of God. It can be said, however, not
without taking into account the human freedom, that God predestined those who He knew
would respond to Him in faith and love. Paul attributes to God the call of the predestined,
their justification and their glorification, v.30. Basis is their conformity with Christ
(summo,rfouj168 th/j eivko,noj tou/ ui`ou/ auvtou/)169.
SECTION A' (Son): 8:31-34: The theme of triumph, first sounded in 5:1-11 and resumed in
8:1-13, is concluded in 8:31-39 with a magnificent peroration, still in diatribe style,
extolling God's and Christ's love for humanity. Key: "If God is for us, who is against us?!"
and "He who did not spare His own Son ... will He not also give us all things with Him?!"
Central theme: triumph through God's love.
8:35-39: The resounding answer: "Nothing can separate us from the love of Christ!"
is given in vv.37-39, with the verb "separate" (cwri,sai) in v.39 forming a subtle
inclusion/conclusion with the question in v.35. The quotation of Psalm 44:22 spoke
originally of the sufferings of Jews in a time of persecution. Thus, Paul attributes salvation
not only to God's but also to Christ's love for us. The seven-fold list of trials in v.35 parallels
to some extent similar lists provided by Paul in connection with the perils and hardships of
his own life as Apostle (cf. 1 Cor 4:10-13; 2 Cor 4:7-12; 6:4-10; 11:23-27; 12:10)170. The
verb u`pernikw/men (NT hapax legomenon171) represents one of the intensive hyper
constructions to which Paul is very attached. In vv.38-39 he offers a list with a regular
pattern of four corresponding pairs (death/life; angels/rulers; present/future; height/depth)
interrupted by "powers" and concluded by the singular "any other created thing". The terms
"angels" (a;ggeloi), "rulers" (avrcai,) and "powers" (variant evxousi,ai) refer (as
in similar lists in 1 Cor 15:24; Col 1:16; 2:15; Eph 1:21; 6:12) to the controlling spiritual
forces, seen as hostile to God's salvific design and thus as conquered by Christ. Taken
together, the terms embrace the worlds above and below the earth respectively and
designate by metonymy, the ruling spirits of both regions.
Section A and A' complement each other, but when taken together (A-B-A'),
constitute a little Trinitarian treatise on the work of the Spirit (A), the work of the Father
(B), and the work of the Son (A') in effecting the redemption of humanity.
168
Similarity of form or nature.
The language of "election" and "predestination" here does not imply a doctrine of predestination
in the classical sense of a divine fixing of individual human lives in a set direction towards salvation
or damnation. Paul is applying the biblical privilege election communally to the Christian
community made up of Jews and Gentiles; the perspective is positive and inclusive. Whether or not
some individuals fail to be included is not at issue.
170
Such lists reflect a widespread topos, appearing not only in Stoic and Jewish apocalyptic
literature but also in writers such as JOSEPHUS and PLUTARCH, as well as Mishnaic and Gnostic
writings.
171
Single occurrence.
169
62
Exegesis of chs. 9-11 (Future salvation of Israel): Paul’s theme of justification by faith led
him to speak of the righteousness of Abraham in ch. 4; similarly here the theme of salvation
lovingly bestowed by God through the Spirit makes it necessary for him to expound on
Israel’s case (chs.9-11), a people which remains unbelieving though it has received the
promise of salvation. The subject of these chapters, therefore, is not the problem of
individual predestination to glory, or even of faith, but of Israel’s part in the development of
salvation history, the only dilemma raised by the statements in the OT.
Israel’s unbelief and its rejection of Jesus as Savior astonished and puzzled Christians. It
constituted a serious problem for them in view of God’s specific preparation of Israel for the
advent of the Messiah: has the divine plan been frustrated? Paul also discourages both
complacency and anxiety on the part of Gentiles, not to boast of their superior advantage
over Jews, since their enjoyment of the blessings assigned to the latter can be terminated.
Parallel structure with chiastic format of 9:1–11:36:
a) The Jews' rejection of the Gospel appears to contradict the promise, 9:1-5
b) Promises fulfilled through the remnant, 9:6-29
c) Misguided zeal of Law led Jews to reject the Gospel, 9:30–10:21
b') Promises fulfilled through the remnant, 11:1-10
a') Jews' rejection of the Gospel only temporary, 11:11-36
a) The Jews' rejection of the Gospel appears to contradict God's promises to Israel, 9:1-5:
9:1-3: Paul explains the apparently unjust way of dealing with Israel: the Gentiles
accept, the Jews reject Christ ("The last have become the first"). He addresses those who
might have accused him of indifference, he swears. Since to be cut off from his brethren is
the worst fate Paul could imagine, his willingness to accept it proves indisputably his love
for them (cf. Ex 32:31 "So Moses returned to the Lord and said, 'Alas, this people has
sinned a great sin; they have made for themselves gods of gold. But now, if you will only
forgive their sin; but if not, blot me out of the book that you have written.'").
9:4f: By citing the great privileges accorded to Israel in the salvation history, Paul
sharpens the apparent paradox172. It is Paul's concept of collectivities that matters: Israel has
for the present rejected the Gospel, which obviously could not be said of individuals. Israel
had pridefully considered these blessings as tied up with its race, flesh and blood. And yet,
Paul does not grant them any privileges when it comes to the essential question of salvation
through Christ. Even Jews will have to accept it from Jesus and not from Moses!
b) But God's promises have been fulfilled through the remnant of the Jews who believe, 9:629:
9:6a: Paul formulates the problem, prepares to give a provisional solution (9:25-29).
Appearances are deceiving. A remnant, foretold by Scriptures, has accepted the Gospel.
9:6b-7: Scripture arguments with two basic points: (i) the nature of true Israel (9:713); (ii) God's freedom to use Israel for His own purposes in the economy of salvation
(9:14-23). Paul begins with a distinction concerning the promise: given not to all the
children of Abraham, but only to the descendants of Isaac and Jacob.
172
Cf. Jn 12:37ff; Mk 4:1ff; Mat 13:1ff; Acts 28:23ff.
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9:8-13: "Children of the flesh" (te,kna th/j sarko,j) are those descendants
chosen by man as opposed to those chosen by God. The point is that God was perfectly free
to choose whomever He wanted (Isaac over Ishmael, Jacob rather than Esau). Election
(evklogh,) clearly is not because of works but because of His call. Paul is not discussing
Predestination in these verses: those not elected are not rejected. The strong statement in
v.13 (To.n VIakw.b hvga,phsa( to.n de. VHsau/ evmi,shsa, taken from
Mal 1:2-3) is not to be pressed, i) deals with two nations (Israel and Edom), ii) love-hate
contrast is simply the Semitic way of opposing opposites to emphasize the positive term
'love'. In Semitic usage “hate” means to love less, cf. Lk 14:26.
9:14-17: Paul defends God against the charge of injustice by quoting Ex 33:19, the
divine initiative is decisive, v.15-16. A further example follows from Ex 9:16: God used
Pharaoh first to assert His divine power (v.17a), second to make His name proclaimed in all
the earth, v.17b.
9:18-21: Paul explains God's transcendent liberty to intervene in history (that God
was behind Pharaoh's opposition is true, but only in the popular Semitic sense that God is
behind everything that happens in the world). Paul spurns the charge that God was
responsible for Pharaoh's sin.
9:22-24: Long involved question: Jews as vessels of wrath make known the vessels
of mercy, i.e., those Jews and Gentiles who have believed in Jesus and now constitute the
true Israel.
9:25-29: Conclusion with a series of quotations that support his argument: Hos 1:10;
2:23 prove that God always intended to call the Gentiles (vv.25f). Isa 10:22f proves that
God always intended a remnant (u`po,leimma) of the Jews to believe, the true seed of
Abraham (= Jewish and Gentile Christians). Thus Paul refutes the initial charge that the
word of God has failed (9:6). The remnant theme (explicit in 9:27, implicit in 9:6-29) will
be taken up in 11:1-10, forming a parallel, bonding sections b and b'.
c) The Jews' misguided zeal to achieve justification through the law has led them to reject
the Gospel, 9:30–10:21:
9:30-32a: Paul explains how Israel came to reject the Gospel (9:30–10:21): the
elementary mistake is that Israel pursued the righteousness based on a meticulous
observance of the Law (right goal sought by wrong means), while the Gentiles attained it by
faith, vv.30f. Israel feared that the doctrine of justification through faith would jeopardize
the validity of the Torah, and so they never reached their goal of holiness.
9:32b-33: He combines two texts from Isaiah (8:14 and 28:16) to prove that what
happened to Israel was foretold: (i) the stumbling stone is Christ, (ii) faith preserves from
falling and shame.
10:1-4: Despite his personal sorrow over Israel's rejection, v.1, and despite the fact
that it was part of God's plan, Paul insists that the Jews were morally responsible for their
own fall. They have chosen to follow their own way, the way of works, to earn
righteousness, vv.2-3, despite the fact that Christ had brought an end to the Law, v.4. The
end of the Law (te,loj no,mou): most likely Paul means that Christ put an end to the
Law by accomplishing all that the Law hoped to achieve but could not achieve 173, and that
173
Cf. Rom 3:21; 5:20; 7:1-6; Gal 3:24; Phil 3:2-15.
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as a consequence the Jews from now on were obliged to seek righteousness only through
faith in Christ.
10:5-7: The righteousness that is truly based on the Law has already been
demonstrated to be faith-based (3:31–4:25). Understood in that sense, Moses' statement (cf.
Lev 18:5) supports Paul's argument. The quotations from Deuteronomy (i) insist on the
gratuity of God's love for Israel, who had done nothing to merit that love (Dt 7:6-8; 8:17-18;
9:4-6), vs. work-based justification; (ii) Dt 30:12ff shows that to do God's will is not
difficult. Paul applies this to Christ: it is not difficult to believe in Him, thus the Jews are all
the more culpable. Christ has already come, v.6, the resurrection has taken place, v.7! The
ultimate revelatory acts of God have taken place in Jesus' incarnation and resurrection and
call for faith from those who understand the Law itself to testify to faith as God's way of
achieving righteousness.
10:8-9: Still quoting Dt (30:14) and referring to faith in Christ, Paul comes to the
conclusion that one is saved by confessing and believing in Jesus' Lordship and resurrection.
10:10-13: V.10 summarizes Paul's teaching about faith, righteousness and salvation.
In support of it Isaiah is quoted (28:16), v.11. In 3:22 Paul declared that Jews and Gentiles
had sinned; here another universal declaration, v.12: all who call upon the Lord will be
saved (cf. Jl 2:32), v.13.
10:14-16: Those who have not believed in Christ are the Jews, and Paul, like a
prosecuting attorney, prepares an indictment against them. Using rhetorical questions (with
self-evident answers), Paul answers his initial question. He takes for granted what should
logically be his last question, namely: "What must be the response of those whom the
preacher calls to faith in Christ?" Instead he jumps to his conclusion: not all the Jews have
obeyed (in 11:1-10 he speaks about the remnant), v.16, and this, too, was foretold (cf. Is
53:1).
10:17-18: V.17 is the transition between vv.14-16 and vv.18-21. If Israel has not
heard the Gospel, then obviously she is not blameworthy; but she has heard (as a
collectivity), v.18a (cf. Ps 19:5).
10:19-21: Paul takes it for granted that if the Gentiles understood and accepted the
Gospel, then certainly Israel should have understood, v.19a. He goes back to Scriptures to
show that Moses (Dt 32:21) and Isaiah (55:1f) had already foretold that Israel would be put
to shame by the unbelieving Gentiles, vv.19b-21. Paul had prepared for this paradoxical
reversal by repeating "Jew first, then Gentile" (cf. 1:16; 2:9-10; 3:9).
b') But God's promises have been fulfilled through the remnant of the Jews who believe,
11:1-10 (cf. section b.):
11:1a: The mystery has been how God could so love and favor the Jews and at the
same time bring it about that at the climax of salvation history they would reject Christ.
11:1b-4: Paul himself is a Christian Jew, proving that not all have rejected the
Gospel (cf. Acts 1-8). This group of believing Jews is the remnant foretold in 1Kg 19:18
(Elijah + 7000 faithful).
11:5-6: Although small in number, the remnant proves that God has been faithful to
His promises. Paul says "chosen by grace" (vv.5b-6) to emphasize once again his contention
that God deals with mankind, not on the basis of works but on the basis of grace, the
gratuitous gift of faith.
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11:7-10: Paul reverts to what he had said about God hardening Pharaoh's heart in
9:18. This 'hardening' is part of God's plan of salvation for the world174. It is God's freedom
of action that is important for Paul and not the question of how God could use Israel without
being involved in the possible immorality of what they had done. Support from Is 29:10 and
Ps 69:22f. Thus the rejection has been real, yet not total.
a') The Jews' rejection of the Gospel is only temporary, 11:11-36:
11:11-12: Paul denies vehemently that the majority stumbled forever. The Gentiles
provoke Israel to jealousy (cf. Dt 32:21). By the Jews' "full inclusion" Paul probably means
the addition of the majority to the remnant to form a totality (plh,rwma).
11:13-15: As the apostle commissioned to preach to the Gentiles (cf. Gal 2:7.9) Paul
works hard (diakoni,an mou doxa,zw) to convert them in order to make the Jews
jealous. By "life from the dead" (zwh. evk nekrw/n) he may mean something
miraculous about their conversion, the final return (v.15 “amissio–assumptio”) of Israel
being the signal for the resurrection (on the boundary of history), the last stage of the
eschatological process initiated by the death and resurrection of Jesus.
11:16-24: A new argument for the salvation of the Jews: in offering to God the fruits
of the field, the Israelites always gave the first fruits in sacrifice as a token for their totality
(cf. Nm 15:18-21). Since Israel through the remnant is the first fruits, it follows that the
remainder of unconverted Israel constitutes the totality, which is holy, v.16. The same
thought is expressed by the horticultural analogy of the root and the branches, followed by
the allegory of the olive tree, vv.17-24. The central point: Israel remains the holy root of
God's people.
11:25-26a: Everything in chs.9-11 has been leading up to vv.25-32: the apocalyptic
mystery (cf. 1 Cor 15:51), which will become clear in the final judgment, is that Israel’s
"hardening [obduracy]" (pw,rwsij175) is temporary. Its ending will come about when the
full number of the Gentiles enter the Church (v.25c). "All Israel" (pa/j Israh,,l),
v.26, is representative, not taxonomical: in every collectivity there are exceptions (not every
individual Jew will be saved). Christ’s original plan was to save Israel, in Rev 7:4-8 we see
His design coming to fruition at last in Israel’s restoration. The failure of the chosen people,
presaged in Jacob’s precedence over Esau, thus becomes a felix culpa as it enables the
gentile world to draw closer to its Redeemer.
11:26b-27: By means of this composite quotation (Is 59:20 and 27:9), Paul makes
the point that God always intended to save Israel from their sins and make a new Covenant
with her. As a result of the Messiah’s coming Israel was to be cleansed of all her sins. Paul
teaches (calling a mystery, v.25) that this prophecy, partially fulfilled already in the
conversion of the pagans, implies the conversion of the Jewish people also176.
11:28-32: Summation of chs.9-11: just as the mercy of God brought the Gentiles
from disobedience to the Gospel, so the same mercy will bring the Jews from rejection of
174
Cf. MEADORS, E., Idolatry and the Hardening of the Heart. A Study in Biblical Theology, New
York – London 2006.
175
A medical technical term of covering with a callous or a thick growth of skin. The NVg translates
as caecitas (obtuseness, blindness).
176
Preceding Paul’s revelation in Rom 11:25-27 is Peter’s kerygma in Acts 3:20-21: the end of the
world is being delayed until after the conversion even of Israel (without any sense of parousiac
urgency); see footnote 6 on Apokatástasis.
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the Gospel to ultimate obedience. Both, Jews and Gentiles, while deserving God's wrath,
have become the beneficiaries of His mercy.
11:33-36: Hymn to God's inscrutable wisdom. Paul had ended ch.8 with a
triumphant paean177 of God's and Christ's love for humanity (vv.31-39). In chs.9-11, he
refuted a serious objection to the universality of that love by proving that it envelopes even
those who reject Him. Everything shown in chs.9-11 shows forth "the depth of the riches
[God's generosity] and wisdom [salvific plan for Jews and Gentiles] and knowledge
[understanding of the human heart] of God", v.33a. Thus, God reverses and confounds
conventional human (especially Jewish) expectation. Two quotations, Is 40:13 and Jb 41:11,
testify to the inscrutability178 of God's ways, vv.34-35. Nothing can be given to God because
He is the Creator and Giver of all to all, v.36a, and therefore deserving of all glory forever,
v.36b.
The entire kerygmatic portion of the letter (1:16–11:36) thus ends with this hymnic
section: God's dramatic intervention in Christ (3:21-26) has overcome the blockage thrown
up by human sin, creating out of all nations – Jews and Gentiles – a people united in the
common glorification of God, the supreme goal of human existence (15:8-12).
Paul and Israel: The Apostle feels a genuine anguish over the continuing disbelief
of Israel (9:1-3; 10:1). Apart from personal disappointment and separation from his "kindred
according to the flesh", it is the single most damaging threat to the credibility of his Gospel.
Today, in a post-Holocaust epoch of growing sensitivity, one asks the question in terms of
confrontation of two religions, related in their origins but long since gone their separate
ways. For Paul the prospect of a permanent rejection of Jesus was incompatible with God's
fidelity and inclusive salvation (11:25-29). For him there was a misreading of the Scriptures
in Israel which pointed not to a narrow, nationally defined and exclusive Israel, but to a
broad, inclusive Israel, made up of believers from all nations (the Catholic Church, as a
matter of fact). He magnifies his ministry to the Gentiles in the hope that, on a "jealousy"
basis, more Jewish brethren might be won for salvation (11:13f). Thus Paul is in no sense
anti-Semitic if by that one means rejection of "Judaism" as a religion definitively separate
from Christianity: such a separation simply did not prevail when he addressed the issue.
Paul's strictures against the Law have to do with his faulting Jews for not
recognizing that, through Christ, God is fulfilling a promise made to Abraham to bring
Gentiles into the share of salvation marked out for them. The thrust of his thought is upon
the impartiality of God (2:11) and the inclusion of all (Jews and Gentiles) in solidarities of
both sin and grace (3:9; etc.). The challenge Paul saw confronting his fellow Jews is the one
the Gospel puts to every human being: "Repent and believe the Good News!" He associated
their resistance with the Law on the grounds that a pursuit of righteousness via the Mosaic
Law masked the fundamental need for repentance. Thus, Paul's call to conversion must be
understood today as regarding all nations.
177
Song of praise, joy or triumph.
Long adjectives beginning with the a-privative are a feature of Greek speculation about the
nature of divinity. The first one here, "unsearchable" (avnexerau,nhta), occurs nowhere else in
the Greek Bible; the second, "inscrutable" (avnexicni,astoi), literally means 'untrackable'
(ivcnoj = spoor, track, trace, footprint), cf. Jb 28:13.
178
67
12:1-2: The Temple spirituality with its emphasis on actual sacrifice is fulfilled in the
Christian people, in their very bodies (cf. John 2:21).
13:1-7: Paul here enunciates the principle that all authority, supposing it lawful and for
the common good, derives from God (based on Wis 6:1-21). Hence, the Christian religion,
like its morality, 12:1, enters into civil life also. Paul does not contradict this even after the
first persecutions under Nero! He is the first Christian author to make a positive assessment
of secular authority, which is seen as God’s dia,konoj (servant, v.4), his e;kdikoj
(avenger, v.4), and his leitourgo,j (minister, v.6). The Church dwells in this world
like an indestructible spiritual kingdom that is not from this world. The problem was
exacerbated by the fact that imperial protocol was interwoven with devotion to various
deities. That Caesar is not entitled to obedience when such an act would nullify God’s prior
claim to the believer’s moral decision becomes clear in vv.8-10. The “sword” in 13:4 seems
to allude to the Roman ius gladii (capital punishment).
15:24: Paul’s missive to the church in Rome may have helped him in his fundraising
efforts to complete his missionary journey to the West, to Spain.
16:1-23: Rom seems to have four epistulary endings: 15:33; 16:20.24.27; in some of the
best manuscripts the solemn finale 16:25-27 appears at the end of ch.14. Some scholars
believe that ch.16 was added to Rom when a copy of the letter was sent to Ephesus, where
Paul lived for three years. This would account for the large number of friends to whom Paul
sends greetings. Other scholars disagree and consider ch.16 the original conclusion to Rom.
We are inclined to hold that it is original. The combination of Jewish and Gentile names
dramatically attests the unity in the gospel that transcends previous barriers of nationality,
religious rite and racial status. V.22 mentions Paul’s secretary, Tertius, who writes this letter
“in the Lord”, evn kuri,w|. This list of greetings reflects the diversity and universality
of the early Church; it includes names deriving from several different cultures and
languages.
The letter to the Romans proposes the core of Pauline theology, yet none of Paul’s
writings has played a more tragic role in occidental history: it was a world-historical
misunderstanding to isolate the verses on justification from their Sitz im Leben and make
them into the absolute center of the Christian religion. For the apostle it was merely a
polemical exposition of one doctrinal aspect in its confrontation with first century Judaism.
Later letters do not even mention the issue any more. The young Martin Luther was too
preoccupied and overwhelmed by his own spiritual disposition to see the overall outline: he
transformed a transitional point into the focal point in an egocentric fashion which became
the tragedy of the occident.
XI. The Letter to the Ephesians, 61 A.D. (from Rome, 1st captivity)
Captivity Epistles: Four of Paul’s epistles – those to the Ephesians, to the
Philippians, to the Colossians, and to Philemon – are known as the Captivity letters, because
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the Apostle was a prisoner when he wrote them, most probably at Rome179 (61-63 A.D.), as
mentioned in Acts 28:30180. Rome explains style: In Rom, 1/2 Cor, Gal, the Apostle was at
the height of his career, founding Churches, unfolding his revelations, defending his
authority and doctrine, in the thick of the battle. In Eph, Phil, Col his work is almost done,
he quietly surveys the fruits of his labors, anxious to preserve them, meditative, reflective, at
peace in his mind, his vision assuming a worldwide range, uniting all mankind of all time
under the universal sovereignty of Christ. Christ the cosmic King and His universal Church
are uppermost in the Apostle's mind.
In Rom, 1/2 Cor, Gal the apostle describes the work of redemption in the individual
soul, in the Captivity Letters he surveys that same work in its embodiment in the social
structure of the Church, and in the Pastoral Letters he will address the hierarchy of the
Church.
Ephesus: Situated on great trade highway between East and West, under Roman
rule, capital of Proconsular Asia181, one of most important cities of ancient times. Its
prosperity and wealth was remarkable. Sought by Paul as a center for his apostolic
activities. Founder of that Church182, cf. Acts 18:18-21; 19:1-3.8-26; 20:18; 1 Tim 1:3ff; 2
Tim 1:18; 4:12; ordaining Timothy as its first bishop. John the apostle resided here together
with Mary, the Mother of Christ (their presence is not mentioned in the epistle); John’s
Gospel was written here183. Ignatius of Antioch wrote a letter to the Ephesians on his
journey to Rome to suffer a martyr’s death. Scene of the Ecumenical Council of 431 and of
the "Robber Synod" (LEO the Great) of 449. In the 7th century Islam becomes prevalent.
Ultimately taken over by Patriarch of Constantinople, Christian community gradually
dwindled, present desolate state of a tiny Turkish town.
Addressees: Difficult to define. Traditionally Ephesians, buttressed by consistent
external evidence. Internal evidence, however, virtually lacking184. Other opinions: the "lost
letter" to the Laodiceans, cf. Col 4:16185.
Paternity: Eph can be imagined as the echo of a Pauline homily given to his visitors
during his Roman house-arrest186. There is a curiously impersonal tone to the writing for a
179
Reasons: (a) Timothy is associated with Paul in writing to the Philippians, Colossians and
Philemon; (b) the capital of the Empire was natural resort of a runaway slave from Colossae, whose
meeting with Paul occasioned a message to Philemon; (c) Paul is "ambassador in chains" (Eph 6:20),
that is, of Christ the King in the imperial city; (d) Paul is free to preach and receive all who come;
(e) he expects an early release, asks Philemon to make ready a lodging for him (Phil 2:24); (f)
Tychicus and Onesimus bear three letters to Asia (Eph 6:21; Col 4:7-9).
180
As against those who argue that they were written during the Caesarean captivity (Caesarea
Maritima, 58-60 A.D.), or from Ephesus itself.
181
Like Corinth in Greece, Antioch in Syria, Alexandria in Egypt.
182
Together with Aquila, Priscilla, Apollo.
183
Cf. also Rev 1:11; 2:1, Apostle and Evangelist John becomes Bishop of that see, spent his
declining years, wrote his Gospel and Epistles, was heard by Polycarp, Ignatius of Antioch, Papias,
died and buried there ca. 100 A.D.
184
See the square bracketed [evn Efe,sw|] in Eph 1:1.
185
Toponymy later deleted due to the deleterious statement about the city in Rev 3:14-22.
186
Others appeal to an earlier imprisonment, perhaps in Caesarea Maritima.
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community with which Paul was so intimately acquainted (cf. 3:2; 4:21; 1 Cor 15:32
“fighting with beasts at Ephesus”?). There are no personal greetings. More significantly,
important early manuscripts omit the words “in Ephesus” in 1:1. Many therefore regard the
epistle as a circular letter, sent to a number of churches in Asia Minor. However, it has
always been ascribed to Paul as its author by all ancient authorities. This universal
attestation is highly significant, not only because Christians of the first centuries were closer
than we are to the situation when it was written, but also they were careful in weighing and
evaluating their founding documents in the light of the Holy Spirit. This uniform testimony
to its apostolic authorship should not be easily dismissed, it vastly outweighs rationalistic
skepticism of recent centuries.
Occasion and Purpose: Written to foster unity among Gentile-Christians and
Judeo-Christians, from Rome during (or at the end?) of the apostle’s first Roman captivity,
61-63 A.D. Epaphras had brought news of the dogmatic and moral errors springing up.
Dispatching Tychicus with a letter to the Colossians, Paul seized the opportunity to send
Eph to those other surrounding Churches, reminding them of their dignity, of the glorious
life in Christ, exhorting them to unity, warning them against imperiling errors, stimulating
them to greater efforts in the pursuit of virtue. Eph is the great letter about the unity of the
Church187.
Division188:
Introduction (1:1-2)
I. Dogmatic Part (1:3–3:21)
II. Moral Part (4:1–6:20)
Conclusion and Benediction (6:21-24)
1:1: Îevn VEfe,sw|Ð, phrase lacking in relevant early MSS such as P46, 3rd cent.,
Codices Sinaiticus (a) and Vaticanus (B), 4th cent., appearing in the latter two as fifth cent.
Addition; Basil and Origin mention its absence from MSS. Without it the Greek can be
rendered, as in Col 1:2, “to the holy ones and faithful brethren in Christ”.
Exegesis of Eph 1:3-14 (NVg 1:3–2:22 Œconomia salutis; 1:3-14 hymnus dispensationis
divinae; Introductory Eulogy: Praise for God's Blessings in Christ):
Instead of a customary prayer of thanksgiving Eph first inserts a blessing. In lyric
fashion, the Apostle begins by recalling the divine benefits (eight blessings, akin to a Jewish
berakāh) for which Almighty God from eternity has chosen and predestined us, that,
namely, through the grace of Christ we should be His holy and adopted children189. This
whole section in the original forms but one sentence, the longest clause concatenation in the
NT, constituting a sort of hymn in three parts, of which each ends with the refrain "to the
praise of His glory". The discernible triadic structure is as follows:
vv.3-6 ― FATHER (two blessings)
See the seven “unities” of Church, Spirit, hope, one Lord, faith and baptism, and the one God in
4:4-6.
188
According to C.J. CALLAN, The Epistles of St. Paul, 2 vols., New York 1951, vol 2, pp. 18-20.
189
Many of its ideas are also found in Col 1:3-23.
187
70
vv.7-13a ― SON (four blessings)
vv.13b-14 ― HOLY SPIRIT (two blessings)
V.3 is an outburst of praise to God for all the blessings conferred on us in Christ, and
the following verses are an amplification of this central thought as it unfolds in meditation.
As his conceptions evolve, Paul ascribes to each of the three divine Persons of the Trinity
the action which by appropriation belongs to Him in the work of our redemption:
i) vv.3-6: The Father chose us from all eternity as His adopted children;
ii) vv.7-13a: The execution of this eternal decree in time towards Jews and Gentiles
through the meritorious Blood of Christ;
iii) vv.13b-14: The Holy Spirit applies redemption to all through grace, the believers
receive Him as the pledge of their eternal inheritance.
1:3: Euvloghto.j o` qeo.j kai. path.r tou/ kuri,ou h`mw/n
VIhsou/ Cristou/( o` euvlogh,saj h`ma/j evn pa,sh| euvlogi,a|
pneumatikh/| evn toi/j evpourani,oij evn Cristw/|,
"God" and "Father" govern the genitive case, because in Greek there is just one
article, so that the sense is: "Blessed190 be our God and Father, who is the God and Father of
our Lord Jesus Christ", cf. Jn 20:17!
"Who blessed us", God's eternal purpose towards the elect (past tense).
"With all spiritual blessings", as opposed to terrestrial, carnal goods 191, pertaining to
man's higher nature because stemming from the Spirit.
"In the heavenlies", blessings come from and lead to heaven, given "in" Christ, i.e.,
by virtue of our union with Him.
1:4: kaqw.j evxele,xato h`ma/j evn auvtw/| pro. katabolh/j
ko,smou ei=nai h`ma/j a`gi,ouj kai. avmw,mouj katenw,pion
auvtou/ evn avga,ph|(
"As", the spiritual blessings are the logical effect of God's eternal decree.
"He chose us", selection and Election, apart from the rest of mankind, cf. Gal 6:16;
[first blessing {1st of the Father}]
"In Him", i.e., members of His Mystical Body.
"Before the foundation of the world", from eternity.
"holy and unblemished", i.e., graced with virtues, free from vice, in an actual state of
moral rectitude.
"in His sight", God reads the secrets of the heart, cf. Ps 7:9; Mt 5:48; Hb 4:13.
"in charity", whether divine or human depends on grammatical connection; some
link it to "chose", i.e. divine love192. Others, ancient and modern, combine it with "holy and
unspotted", i.e., charity as the formal cause of our sanctification, at once the bond and crown
of all virtues. JEROME and CHRYSOSTOM conjoin it with "predestined" in the subsequent v.5:
the love of God for us is the supreme cause of our predestination as adopted children, cf. Jn
3:16.
190
I.e., worthy of all praise.
Cf. OT mentality based on Gen 22:17; Dt 28:1-13, etc.
192
Not likely, because syntactically too far separated.
191
71
1:5: proori,saj h`ma/j eivj ui`oqesi,an dia. VIhsou/
Cristou/ eivj auvto,n( kata. th.n euvdoki,an tou/ qelh,matoj
auvtou/(
"who predestined us", i.e., God chooses us (v.4a), loves us (v.4b), predestines us
(v.5).
"Unto the adoption193", i.e., proximate purpose of divine predestination was
adoption194, that is, our transformation into the likeness of the Savior [second blessing {2nd
of the Father}].
"Through (dia,) Jesus Christ", i.e., Jesus is essentially Mediator between His
Father and mankind.
"Unto Himself", i.e., unto the Father195, origin and end of our
redemption/adoption196.
"To the good pleasure of His will", i.e., radical reason and true efficient cause of our
redemption, election, adoption, namely, the gratuitous will of God197.
1:6: eivj e;painon do,xhj th/j ca,ritoj auvtou/ h`j
evcari,twsen h`ma/j evn tw/| hvgaphme,nw|,
"Unto the praise", i.e., the final cause of God's love, choice, predestination, adoption:
His glory (do,xa) to be praised198.
"Grace", not so much the supernatural gift of grace as the fountain of God's gifts, His
liberality and benevolence.
"By which", the preposition in in the VULGATE should be omitted here, as it is not
represented in the Greek mss, where we read h[j (a genitive by attraction of the preceding
noun ca,ritoj, for the accusative or the dative). Correct rendering: "by which".
"He graced us", i.e., aorist tense, signaling a definitely past action, "pursued with
benevolence", God rendering us lovable or gracious199.
"In the Beloved", i.e., the Son, lovable in Himself, is essentially the Beloved; thus,
the grace of adoption has come to us, not on account of any merit of ours, but only through
the merits of the beloved Son of God. Paul, as always, insists on the mediatorial merits of
Christ.
1:7: evn w-| e;comen th.n avpolu,trwsin dia. tou/ ai[matoj
auvtou/( th.n a;fesin tw/n paraptwma,twn( kata. to. plou/toj
th/j ca,ritoj auvtou/,
"In whom", redemption effected by Jesus' voluntary offering of His life as a ransomprice for us.
"The remission of sins", i.e., the forgiveness200 of our trespasses201. [third blessing
{1st of the Son}]
193
Peculiarly Pauline expression, exclusively in Gal 4:5; Rom 8:15.23; 9:4; Eph 1:5.
St. AUGUSTINE: "God became man that men might become the sons of God.", cf. Gal 4:4-6.
195
Less probable interpretation: unto the Son.
196
Cf. 1 Jn 3:1.
197
St. THOMAS AQUINAS: "Praedestinationis divinae nulla alia causa est, nec esse potest, quam
simplex Dei voluntas. Unde patet etiam, quod divinae voluntatis praedestinantis non est alia ratio,
quam divina bonitas filiis communicanda."
198
Epainoj signifies the public and jubilant exaltation in the sight of angels and men of the divine
munificence and prodigality.
199
See St. CHRYSOSTOM and St. THEODORET.
194
72
"According to the riches of His grace", i.e., showing the immensity of God's
goodness; the shedding of blood was an acknowledgment of His supreme dominion over life
and death which sin had challenged.
1:8: h`j evperi,sseusen eivj h`ma/j( evn pa,sh| sofi,a|
kai. fronh,sei(
"Which He caused to abound in us", i.e., the subject of the verb is God.
"In all wisdom and prudence", i.e., we were also given insight into the mysteries of
the divine will; "wisdom" (sofi,a) means a knowledge of principles referring to a
speculative comprehension of the great mysteries of faith; "prudence" (fro,nhsij)
pertains to actions, a practical knowledge of good to be done and evil to be avoided202.
1:9: gnwri,saj h`mi/n to. musth,rion tou/ qelh,matoj
auvtou/( kata. th.n euvdoki,an auvtou/ h]n proe,qeto evn
auvtw/|
"Having made known unto us", participle aorist active nominative masculine
singular, i.e., the Greek verb gnwri,zein connotes the revelation of hidden truths to the
Jews; the time referred to is the actual revelation of the Gospel. [fourth blessing {2nd of the
Son]
"The mystery203 of His will", i.e., to unite all, Jews and Gentiles, in Christ, to make
Him the term and synthesis of the whole re-established supernatural order.
"According to His good pleasure", i.e., the Father making known to the saints the
secret of His will.
"Which He purposed in Him", i.e., in the Son, the Messiah, inasmuch as it was to be
realized through Jesus.
1:10: eivj oivkonomi,an tou/ plhrw,matoj tw/n kairw/n(
avnakefalaiw,sasqai ta. pa,nta evn tw/| Cristw/|( ta. evpi.
toi/j ouvranoi/j kai. ta. evpi. th/j gh/j evn auvtw/|Å
"In the dispensation of the fullness of times", i.e., the Greek oivkonomi,a really
means stewardship, house-management; when sin had disrupted the harmony of creation,
the Father decreed to send His Son into the world when the time determined by Himself had
arrived, and to make Him the supreme head and administrator of all things in His spiritual
household, the Church, for the purpose of recapitulating204 and reconciling all things to
Himself through this His Son.
"All things", i.e., men and angels, the material universe and the spiritual, made
subject to Christ. All are reunited with the Father through Christ after having been
dissevered and thrown into disharmony by sin. In the beginning all creatures formed one
Apolu,trwsij, lit. as an action, a buying back of a slave or captive through payment of a
ransom.
201
Paraptw/ma, lit. deviation, false step, falling away.
202
See also Lk 1:17.
203
Musth,rion, (1) as a religious technical term in the cults of the Graeco-Roman world, a
religious secret confided only to the initiated, a secret ritual (not used in the NT); (2) in the NT, (a)
as what can be known only through revelation mediated from God, what was not known before, cf.
Mt 13:11; (b) as a supreme redemptive revelation of God through the Gospel of Christ, cf. Rom
16:25; Eph 1:9; 3:9; (c) as a hidden meaning of a symbol with metaphorical significance, cf. Eph
5:32.
204
Avnakefalaiw,sasqai, lit. to bring everything back under one head.
200
73
grand family all subject to their Creator. The re-establishment of order, that is, redemption,
equals creation in its extension, therefore.
1:11: evn w-| kai. evklhrw,qhmen proorisqe,ntej kata.
pro,qesin tou/ ta. pa,nta evnergou/ntoj kata. th.n boulh.n
tou/ qelh,matoj auvtou/
"obtain an inheritance", i.e., cf. Dt 32:9, the Church is the new Israel of God (Gal
6:16); the call to Christianity is gratuitous and "predestined" according to the free and
independent choice of the will of God [fifth blessing {3rd of the Son}]. The verb
evnergei/n signifies the infallible efficacy of the divine action in moving all things to
their respective operations and ends. Boulh, includes the deliberation of the reason,
whereas qe,lhma means native, active inclination. God's will is eminently free, but by no
means arbitrary, it acts according to counsel.
1:12: eivj to. ei=nai h`ma/j eivj e;painon do,xhj auvtou/
tou.j prohlpiko,taj evn tw/| Cristw/|Å
"We who before hoped in Christ" (prohlpiko,taj), i.e., the Jews, to whom the
Messianic promises were given; to them was given the prerogative of being first admitted
into the New Israel, the Church.
1:13: evn w-| kai. u`mei/j avkou,santej to.n lo,gon th/j
avlhqei,aj( to. euvagge,lion th/j swthri,aj u`mw/n( evn w-|
kai.
pisteu,santej
evsfragi,sqhte
tw/|
pneu,mati
th/j
evpaggeli,aj tw/| a`gi,w|(
"In whom you also", i.e., the Gentile converts, also called to share in the Gospel
blessings. [sixth blessing {4th of the Son}]
"Sealed with the Holy Spirit", the Spirit is the seal and pledge of their divine
filiation205. [seventh blessing {1st of Holy Spirit}]
1:14: o[ evstin avrrabw.n th/j klhronomi,aj h`mw/n( eivj
avpolu,trwsin th/j peripoih,sewj( eivj e;painon th/j do,xhj
auvtou/Å
"Pledge" (avrrabw.n), i.e., the Holy Spirit is the first installment or part-payment
of the final and complete blessedness [eigth blessing {2nd of Holy Spirit}]. The Greek word
is a transliteration of a Semitic legal and commercial technical term in origin and meant
something given as a guarantee of an agreement between two parties, but which was to be
surrendered upon the fulfillment of the contract. It was an advance transaction which
guarantees the validity of a contract, or a down payment for a full purchase price. Here it
means a certain part of a whole that is to be paid in due time.
"Unto redemption", i.e., their final manumission from sin's enslavement and
emancipation as God's property (peripoi,hsij), acquired by the Blood of Christ. They
are God's possession now. The foretaste of the future inheritance is the part-payment of the
Holy Spirit206.
205
This sign or seal is impressed on the soul in the sacraments of Baptism, Confirmation and Holy
Orders; they were usually conferred together in the Early Church, cf. Lk 24:49; Acts 1:4ff; 2:16ff;
Jn 1:32; 6:27.
206
St. THOMAS AQUINAS: "Charitas viae, quam hic habemus per infusum Spiritum Sanctum, eadem
numero est ac charitas patriae, qua beati (misericordia Dei) possidebimus Deum in Coelo." Summa
Theologiae Ia IIae, Q. 67, art. 6.
74
The last end of all God's benefits to us is the praise of His glory in heaven. He will
be the supreme object of the praise of the saved hereafter, and all else will be an object of
that universal chorus of exultant song, inasmuch as it reflects Him and His attributes. The
Psalmist described the future spiritual bliss of the citizens of Jerusalem, which was a type of
the heavenly city: "And singing as well as dancing they shall chant: All my fountains are in
thee." (Ps 86:7).
1:22-23: cf. 4:15-16, only in Eph and Col is Christ the head of the body, in contrast
to the view in 1 Cor 12 and Rom 12:4-8, where Jesus is equated with the entire body of the
Church community (cf. Col 1:18). Eventually, in its widest sense, v.23, Paul includes in his
concept of the Body the entire cosmos as unified under the Lord Christ.
2:11-22: The Gentiles lacked Israel’s messianic expectation, covenants, hope of
salvation and knowledge of the one true God, but in Christ all these barriers between Jews
and Gentiles have been transcended by the abolition of the Mosaic covenant-law for the
sake of uniting them into a single religion (“household”, “temple”). The elaborate imagery
of vv.14-16 combines pictures of Christ as our peace, his crucifixion, our reconciliation and
destruction of the dividing wall.
3:1: Paul abruptly departs from his train of thought at the end of v.1 leaving an
incomplete sentence.
3:6: A triple buildup of typical Pauline compound verbs with sun-:
sugklhrono,ma kai. su,sswma kai. summe,toca.
3:14-15: There is a wordplay on path,r and patria,. The phrase could also
mean “God’s whole family”.
4:3-6: Exhortation to unity: “toti te insere mundo”, be part of the total (Stoic maxim)!
The “seven unities” reflect the triune structure of later creeds in reverse.
4:11: Unique list of ministers, cf. 1 Cor 12:28; Rom 12:6-8.
4:15-16: cf. 1:22-23, the imagery may stem from ancient views in medicine, the head
coordinating and caring for the body, each ligament supporting the whole; as at 2:19-22,
where the temple is depicted as a growing organism, there may also be the idea here of
growing toward the capstone, Christ.
Exegesis of Eph 5:21-33: Precepts for domestic life (Household Code): A close textual
parallel is found in Col 3:18-4:1. From 4:1–5:20 Paul had given a general exhortation on
Christian life; now he focuses on a particular state of life, the family. In each case Paul
begins with the weaker member of the household (wives, children, servants), and concludes
with an admonition of the stronger ones (husbands, parents, masters).
The basis is Christ’s headship over the Church, His mystical body. He presents a
revolutionary doctrine: under Roman rule women were kept in a state of subordination and
subjection little better than dire servitude. The Paterfamilias had absolute/tyrannical
authority over his wife, children and servants/slaves (potestas manus)207. Paul, therefore,
cautiously weans people away from pagan customs: Greek life was unimaginable without
hetaeras (e`tai/ra
= concubine, courtesan) and paederasty/paedophilia
207
This principle gradually changed only after 364-375 A.D., under emperors Valentinian and
Valens.
75
(paiderasti,a208, paidofili,a = homosexuality): great statesmen and philosophers
praised their virtuousness (Socrates, Aristotle, Plato, Pericles). No one would have extolled
one’s love for one’s own wife. And so, Paul is about to revolutionize the primordial cell of
society and usher in a new era of Christian family culture. Verses 21-24 speak about the
wives; the following verses are centered on husbands.
v.21: The adjective allhloij underlines the mutuality and reciprocity of service
and love. This initial principle of subordination to one another under Christ, thus effectively
undermines exclusive claims to domination by one party.
v.22: There is a perfect spiritual equality between husband and wife (cf. Gal 3:28);
his headship is that of love.
v.23: Jesus is the swthr tou swmatoj, the Preserver and Deliverer by His
passion and death; thus, a husband’s love must be self-giving and sacrificial.
v.24: The high moral standard of love is expressed in the demanding en panti.
v.25: Christ is held up as the model for a husband, kaqwj. The sacrificial character
of love is underscored by paredwken.
v.26: The aorist tense of agiash and kaqarisaj admits no intervals of time, it
refers to a single act of sanctification; allusion to the water of baptism (Ti 3:5) and to the
bath of the bride before marriage in Greco-Roman societies.
v.27: The presentation (parasthsh) of the spotless Bride to the divine Groom is
developed in Rev 19:7f; 21-22.
vv.28-29: The analogy of Christ’s love for His Church enforces Paul’s argument.
v.30: Passage from singular to plural, esmen.
v.31: Matrimony as a divine institution; citation from Gen 2:24 (LXX); cf. Mat 19:5f.
v.32: The sacramentum magnum, musthrion mega, does not refer to the natural
union of man and woman in matrimony. Marriage was created by God to become
figure/type and prophetic announcement of Christ’s love for His Church; the latter itself
stands for God’s covenantal love for mankind as such, a union achieved only in the world to
come, where there will be no marriage anymore (Mat 22:30). Therefore, the celibate life
imitates love’s reality closer than the married life, which is its mere image. The wife should
serve her husband in the same spirit as that of the Church’s service to Jesus (vv.22.24), and
the husband should care for his wife with the devotion of Christ to the Church (vv.25-30);
thus Paul gives to the Genesis passage the highest meaning in the light of the bridal union
between the Lamb and his Church, of which Christlike loyalty in Christian marriage is a
clear reflection (vv.31-33).
Exegesis of 6:10-20, Spiritual Combat and Means of Victory: A general exhortation to
courage and prayer. Drawing upon the imagery and ideas of Isa 11:5; 59:16-18; and Wis
5:17-23, Paul portays the Christian in terms of the dress and equipment of Roman soldiers.
However, our readiness for combat is not directed against human beings but against the
spiritual powers of evil. Textual subdivision: vv.10-13 preparation for conflict; vv.14-17
armor of a Christian warrior; vv.18-20 vigilant prayer to vanquish Satan.
v.10: God’s armor – Isa 59:16-18.
Etymologically derived from the combination of the stem pai,d- “boy, child”, and
evrasth,j, “lover”.
208
76
v.12: “Air” (Eph 2:2), evil spirits no longer in heaven (Rev 12:9), not on earth
(reclaimed by Christ’s death and resurrection), hence in the ‘air’ (cf. Lk 4:6; Jn 14:30;
16:11).
vv.11-17: Spiritual panoply (vv.11.13 panopl,ia full armor of a heavy-armed
Roman legionary; cf. Luk 11:22; Rom 13:12; 2 Cor 6:7; 10:4), image drawn from Warrior
Messiah209; first defensive elements (six), then offensive weapon (one):
a) “stand” = readiness
b) “truth” = belt
c) “justice” = breastplate
d) “alacrity/eagerness of the Gospel of Peace” = shoes
e) “faith” = shield to quench flaming arrows
f) “salvation” = helmet
g) “Word of God” = sword
v.18: Unique importance is placed on prayer: pray always!
vv.19-20: Apostle asks a part in their prayers.
6:21-24: If Ephesians is addressed to several churches, it is understandable that no
greetings to individual members of these communities should have been included in it.
XII. The Letter to the Philippians, 62 A.D. (from Rome, 1st captivity)
Philippi: City in Eastern Macedonia on the borders of Thrace. In the fourth cent.
B.C. taken, enlarged and fortified by Philip of Macedon, the father of Alexander the Great.
From him it received its later name. Fell into the hands of the Romans in 168 B.C.; made a
Roman military colony (Colonia Julia Augusta Victrix Philippensium) with Ius Italicum210.
Center of Roman influence with cosmopolitan character, combining the life of Asia and the
life of Europe. Its inhabitants mostly Latin in origin, Macedonian minority, miniature
Jewish community without proper Synagogue. Town destroyed by the Turks in later
centuries, nothing remains but ruins.
The Church of Philippi: Paul’s favorite church! Philippi is the only church that had
the privilege of sending some personal financial support to the apostle (through
Epaphroditus), to Thessalonica, Corinth and Rome (Phil 2:25; 4:10-18; 2 Cor 11:8f). Paul
came to Philippi from Troas during the second missionary journey, around 51 A.D. (cf. Acts
15:40; 16:1-17; Phil 1:1). The first to respond to his preaching was a Gentile lady by the
name of Lydia, a seller of purple from Thyatira in Asia. Church composed of Gentile
On the divine warrior motif, see Exo 15:3; Psa 23:8; 45:3; Wis 18:15 (durus debellator – stern
warrior) Isa 42:13; Zeph 1:14; Acts 20:22; 2 Cor 6:7; 10:3-6; Eph 4:8; Rom 13:11-14; 1 Thess 5:211. Lying behind this Pauline perspective is the apocalyptic idea that the world is caught in a
struggle between divine and diabolical forces which will one day be resolved by the conquest of
chaos and death. Until then Christians are to arm themselves with the values of the Gospel in order
to become participants in the present, earthly dimensions of this larger spiritual and moral struggle.
210
Conferring to its citizens the right of constitutional government, independent of the provincial
governor, the right of proprietorship according to Roman Imperial Law, and exemption from poll
and land taxes, having its own duumviri and supreme magistrates.
209
77
converts. Paul revisits his church on his third journey. The first Christian community in
Europe.
Occasion, Purpose and Character: The Philippians sent Epaphroditus to Paul
imprisoned in Rome, with gifts and instructions to minister his needs. Paul sends him back
with this letter, an intimate expression of joy and gratitude for the aid given the Apostle by
the Philippians and for the loving sentiments that prompted it. Termed “the letter of joy” (cf.
1:18.25; 2:2.17f.28f; 3:1; 4:1.4.10)211. Intermingled are a number of moral reflections and
exhortations (unity, humility). One of the most personal and familiar writings of Paul (cf.
1:8), revealing his overflowing affection, human sensitivity, tenderness, and his genius for
friendship. More than elsewhere the heart and mind of the apostle appears.
Date and Place of Writing: The weight of argument and of authority shows that
Phil was written from Rome during Paul's first captivity there (61-63 A.D.), either before or
after the writing of the other Captivity letters (Eph, Col, Phlm).
Authenticity and Integrity: All antiquity in unanimity with numerous and
incontestable testimonies. Its language, style and theology are thoroughly Pauline.
Interruptions, reiterations and breaks only underline the Apostle's literary habits.
Exegetical History: St. CHRYSOSTOM's homilies on Phil, though not precisely in
commentary form, constitute the most significant patristic exposition, with genuine
sensitivity to the historical meaning of the text, alert to possible ambiguities in Paul's
language, concise theological assessments. As a native speaker his innate sense for Greek
provides an important bridge between the modern interpreter and the Pauline letter.
THOMAS AQUINAS' exposition/commentary of Phil is quite excellent by being
grammatico-historical, because only seldom does he allow extra-biblical preoccupation to
displace the meaning of the original. The Bible becomes her own interpreter. His theological
conclusions and the ocean of scriptural quotations are unobjectionable. Building as he does
on Augustinian foundation, his emphasis on God's (predestinating) grace shows through at
key points. Nevertheless, the commentary is not based on the Greek text and Aquinas is
often unaware of relevant interpretive questions that affect our understanding of the letter as
a whole.
By common consent, it is John CALVIN's commentary that marks a new epoch in the
exposition of Phil. Other names to be highlighted are CORNELIUS A LAPIDE (catholic), J.
KNABENBAUER (catholic), H.A. MEYER, J.B. LIGHTFOOT, E. LOHMEYER. Contemporary
scholarship: J. GNILKA (catholic), J.-F. COLLANGE, G.F. HAWTHORNE, W. SCHENK.
Structure212:
I. Opening, 1:1-11
a. Salutation, 1:1-2
b. Thanksgiving, 1:3-8
“Res severa magnum gaudium.” SENECA.
According to M. SILVA, Philippians, Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament,
Grand Rapids 1992, p. 18.
211
212
78
c. Prayer, 1:9-11
II. Paul's Missionary Report, 1:12-26
a. Paul's circumstances, 1:12-17
b. Paul's attitude, 1:18-26
III. A Call to Sanctification, 1:27–2:30
a. Christian citizenship, 1:27–2:4
b. Christian humility (Kenotic Hymn), 2:5-11
c. Christian obedience, 2:12-18
d. Resumption of missionary report, 2:19-30
IV. Doctrinal Polemics, 3:1–4:1
a. Judaizers as theological context, 3:1-6
b. The essence of Pauline theology, 3:7-11
c. Practical theology, 3:12–4:1
V. Final Concerns, 4:2-23
a. Exhortations, 4:2-9
b. Thanksgiving, 4:10-20
c. Closing, 4:21-23
1:1:
The
Greek
evpi,skopoj
literally
means
“superintendent/overseer/supervisor”, since the second century it has come to designate the
“bishop”. The term, however, is older than the ecclesial ministry it later denotes213.
Nonetheless, the notion of hierarchical order in a religious community existed in Israel
before the time of Christ. In NT times this office had not yet developed into the form that it
later assumed, though it seems to be well on the way to such development in the Pastoral
epistles (cf. 1 Tim 3:2; Ti 1:7, where it is regularly translated bishop). At Philippi, however,
(and at Ephesus, according to Acts 20:28), there was more than one episkopos (cf. plural),
and the precise function of these officials is uncertain. In order to distinguish this office
(poly-episcopacy) from the later stages into which it evolved (mono-episcopacy), the term is
here translated as overseers. Paul had given no perfect autonomy to his communities, he
himself remaining the sole bishop of an immense diocese.
The Greek dia,konoj is used frequently in the NT to designate “servant”,
“attendant”, or “minister”. Paul refers to himself and to other apostles as “ministers of God”
(2 Cor 6:4) or “ministers of Christ” (2 Cor 11:23). In the Pastorals (see 1 Tim 3:8.12) the
diakonos has become an established official in the local church; hence the term is translated
as “deacon”. The diakonoi at Philippi seem to represent an earlier stage of the development
of the office; we are uncertain about their precise functions. Hence the term is here
translated as “ministers” (see Rom 16:1, where Phoebe is described as a “diakonos”
[minister] of the church of Cenchreae; or Junias called an “apostle” in Rom 16:7)214.
Reference to Timothy is a courtesy: Paul alone is the writer of this epistle as the
singular verb throughout shows (vv.3-26).
The word evpi,skopoj features in HOMER (Ilias 22,255; Odyssee 8,163) and other Greek
classics in the sense of supervisors of temple properties and colonial regions.
214
For further elucidation on the subject of the diaconate in the NT, see From the Diakonia of Christ
to the Diakonia of the Apostles, INTERNATIONAL THEOLOGICAL COMMISSION, HistoricoTheological Research Document, Chicago 2003.
213
79
1:13: Either the Praetorian guard in the city where he was incarcerated or the
govenor’s official residence in a Roman province.
1:18: “Rejoice” (cai,rein) is a major theme in the letter.
1:19-25: Paul earnestly debates his prospects of martyrdom or continued missionary
labor.
Exegesis of 2:6-11 The Kenotic Hymn or Carmen Christi: Falls into two syntactic parts,
vv.6-8 where the subject of every verb is Christ, and vv.9-11 where the subject is God the
Father. We encounter here at the climax of the story of salvation a three-stage Christology,
that is, one that includes preexistence, incarnation, and exaltation (cf. the Christology of
Hebrews). Preceding is an exhortation to unity and humility (tapei,nwsij), 1:27–2:4.
Original status
Divine preexistence
Humiliation 1
Kenosis in Incarnation
6 o]j evn morfh/| qeou/ u`pa,rcwn
ouvc a`rpagmo.n h`gh,sato to. ei=nai i;sa
qew/|(
7 avlla. e`auto.n evke,nwsen
morfh.n dou,lou labw,n(
evn o`moiw,mati avnqrw,pwn geno,menoj\
kai. sch,mati eu`reqei.j w`j a;nqrwpoj
Humiliation 2
Tapeinosis in death
Hymnic anti-climax
8 evtapei,nwsen e`auto.n
geno,menoj u`ph,kooj me,cri qana,tou(
qana,tou de. staurou/Å
Exaltation
Glorification
9 dio. kai. o` qeo.j auvto.n u`peru,ywsen
kai. evcari,sato auvtw/| to. o;noma to.
u`pe.r pa/n o;noma(
10 i[na evn tw/| ovno,mati VIhsou/ pa/n
go,nu ka,myh|
evpourani,wn kai. evpigei,wn kai.
katacqoni,wn
Homage 1
Cosmic adoration
Homage 2
New title of Lord
Hymnic climax
11 kai. pa/sa glw/ssa evxomologh,shtai
o[ti ku,rioj VIhsou/j Cristo.j
eivj do,xan qeou/ patro,jÅ
2:5: Since the entire Christ event is depicted in vv.6-11, the appeal is to have in
relations themselves that same relationship they have in Jesus Christ, i.e., serving one
another as they serve Him: tou/to fronei/te evn u`mi/n o] kai. evn
Cristw/| VIhsou/.
2:6: "Being in the form of God", i.e., morfh, (opposite sch,ma) denotes the mode of
being or appearance from which the essential character or status of something can be known
(contrasting with the appearance of a slave, v.7). A regular technical term in Aristotelian
philosophy for 'form' as opposed to 'matter'; the Greek Fathers take it as equivalent to
'nature', in full accord with Paul's thought. ‘Form’, therefore means all the attributes that
80
express and reveal the essential nature of God. Christ enjoyed a Godlike way of being. He
had all the divine prerogatives by right. It recalls the description of human dignity in Gen
1:26f (kat `eivko,na qeou/).
"like God", adverb i;;sa indicates likeness to God, rather than strict equality215.
The verb "being" is best taken to express previous existence.
"Thought it not robbery", i.e., robbery216 translating rapinam (NVg), but not the
difficult a`rpagmo,n, a noun with a masculine termination giving the object of the verb.
A neuter a[rpagma (“a thing to be seized, a thing to hold on to, greatly desired, a prize, a
piece of good fortune”) would be a more usual way to express the action of the verb: (a) the
active sense “something to be seized” (res rapienda217); or the passive sense "something to
be grasped and held fast" (res rapta et retinenda218).
"He thought" (from h`ge,omai, aorist middle deponent: [a] to think, regard, consider,
[b] to lead, guide, rule) is an anthropomorphic way of expressing the divine Logos' attitude
regarding the surrender of His position of equality with God in order to become man. This
verb represents the only NT allusion to a pre-temporal deliberation in the second divine
person (cf. his thought upon entering this world in his incarnation in Heb 10:5-7; Psa
139:13-16). The divine and preexistent Christ did not regard the advantage of His divinity as
grounds to avoid the incarnation. The divine Verbum could not have surrendered His
equality with God. The ‘clinging to’ refers to His being publicly treated and honored as
equal to God, which Jesus (unlike Adam’s ambition to be seen to be like God, Gen 3:5.22)
could and did give up in His human life219. It could also refer to what the man Jesus refused
to grasp at to attain divinity.
2:7: "But He emptied Himself"220, i.e., keno,w used metaphorically "to make of
no account, futile", along the line of Paul's use of the same verb in the passive to mean "be
rendered powerless, ineffective" (cf. Rom 4:14); Christ evidently could not empty Himself
of His Godhead, even in part. Paul stresses His Divinity221. The kénosis refers not so much
to the fact of the Incarnation, as to the way it took place: freely giving up His divine glory to
which He was entitled (Jn 17:5), and which ‘normally’ speaking would have been
observable in His human body (cf. Transfiguration, Mt 17:1-8). He voluntarily deprived
Himself of this so that it could be returned to Him by His Father after the accomplishment
of His sacrifice in His humanity (cf. Jn 8:50.54). The reason for God’s kénosis is theósis
(qeo,sij), the restoration of intimate communion with God, or divinization.
215
In the Jewish tradition, being like God meant immunity to death, cf. Wis 2:23.
The active sense is meaningless in this context; cf. also Mt 23:25; Heb 10:34, as well as the NT
terms a`rpa,zein, a`rpax, and sunarpa,zein.
217
Favored by those who see Christ's attitude being contrasted here with that of Adam; but what did
Christ, already "in the form of God", have to seize?
218
Preferable here: the Godlike One did not use His exalted status for purely selfish ends (with
tenacity and jealousy).
219
Some see Christ’s humanity, in contrast with the first Adam (form/image of God, Gen 3:5f), that
refused to attain divinity.
220
This expression has contributed to the development of "kenotic" Christologies.
221
St. THOMAS AQUINAS: "Hoc est intelligendum secundum assumptionem eius quod non habuit;
sicut enim descendit de coelo, non quod desineret esse in coelo, sed quia incepit novo modo esse in
terra, sic etiam se exinanivit, non deponendo divinam naturam, sed assumendo naturam humanam.";
C.H. GIBLIN refers to a "transfiguration in reverse".
216
81
This self-emptying is not about Christ surrendering or forsaking his divine nature (a
seeming ‘de-divinization’), but expressing the divine nature most fully. The Logos
recognizes that being equal with God means most profoundly to be “not-grasping”. The
kénosis and tapeínosis unto death is the revelation that to be God is be unselfish itself222.
"Adopting the condition of a slave", in the thought of the hymn (cf. Gal 4:1-11;
4:21–5:1; Rom 8:15) unredeemed human existence is essentially a slavery, a bondage to
spiritual powers, ending in death. Some find a parallel in dou/loj to Is 52:13-53:12
(suffering Servant of God). The clear implication in this and the following phrase that the
Godlike and hence immortal One "took on" (labw,n) the human condition from outside, as
it were, creates grave difficulty for those who see the hymn as having solely the earthly
existence of Christ in view.
"being found in human form", stresses the manner (sch,ma) in which He now
appeared (eu`reqei,j) in the sight of both God and human beings.
2:8: "He humbled Himself", i.e., whole emphasis here, the example for the
Philippians to follow. Reflecting the language of the Servant of YHWH223 (especially Isa
53:8 tapei,nwsij). This verb relates back to the previous context on the virtue of
humility in 2:3; it also hints at Jesus as the fulfiller of the Anawiim spirituality of the OT224.
"becoming obedient unto death", death was not simply the terminal point of His
obedience, it was the inevitable consequence of being both fully human and totally obedient
in a world alienated from God.
"even death on the cross", absolute anti-klimax, somewhat intrusive in the structure
of the hymn. Crucifixion, the form of execution reserved for slaves and those who had
totally forfeited all civic rights, marks the extremity of human abasement. This clause
thanatou tou staurou breaks the poetic pattern of all major arrangements of the passage, to
emphasize the extent and depth of His death.
2:9: "Therefore" (dio, kai,), as a reward for Jesus' extreme and voluntary
abasement He was exalted, cf. Lk 24:26; Mt 23:12. At this point, o` Qeo,j becomes the
central subject of the hymn:
"God has exalted Him", i.e., u`peruyo,w very strong verb, lit. 'super-exalted'. The
self-denying act of Christ is matched by the active response of God: Jesus’ resurrection and
ascension into heaven.
"graciously bestowed", Christ's selflessness has given scope to God's victorious
grace, which has full play where the human will is not grasping.
222
To become human means to become poor. Satan wants to make Jesus strong, for he fears the
powerlessness of God in Christ’s humanity. Satan dreads the Trojan horse of an open human heart
that will remain true to its native poverty, suffer the misery and abandonment that is humanity’s, and
save humanity. Satan’ temptation is an assault on God’s self-renunciation, an enticement to strength,
security and spiritual abundance; for these things will obstruct God’s saving approach to man in the
dark robes of frailty and weakness.
223
Notice that the liturgy applies Servant Canticles to John the Baptist as well (cf. June 24 th, The
Nativity of John the Baptist, Isa 49)
224
Cf. HOECK, «Kénosis»; one could pursue this trend even to the point of seeing Christ’s abasement
coming to a close only in the humble species of the Eucharist, eventuating in this movement: kenotic
→ tapeinotic → eucharistic.
82
"Name", 'Lord' in itself is not a name at all, but a confession, nor was it given in the
obvious sense to Jesus (cf. Lk 1:31). The explicit mention is held back till the climax in
v.11. Here it stands for power, dignity, majesty, greater even than the angels.
2:10: "in the name", cf. Is 45:23, absolute Godhead is asserted in Isaiah, here
ascribed to Christ, but for 'swear' Paul substitutes 'confess'. As Christ has suffered in His
humanity, so He is to be glorified for ever in that humanity, which is to receive divine
adoration in virtue of the divine Person who assumed it. Christ is given the unique
investiture and status of lordship over the universe (cf. 1 Cor 3:21-23; Rom 10:9).
"Jesus", from now on this name inextricably connotes also the title and authority of
universal Lord.
"in heaven, on earth, and under the earth", threefold enumeration underpins the
eschatological homage given to God alone. "Heavens" = angels, "earth" = mankind, "under
the earth"225 = souls of the departed (THEODORET), demons (CHRYSOSTOM). Reference to
the three levels in the universe, according to ancient thought. The Father appoints the
humanity in his Son to be the Sovereign of three worlds.
2:11: absolute hymnic climax, encapsulates an early Christian confession (1 Cor
12:3; Rom 10:9). “Jesus Christ is Lord” is the essence of the Christian creed (cf. Rom 10:9;
1 Cor 12:3; Col 2:6; cf. Isa 45:23).
"to the glory of God the Father", the ultimate goal of the entire sequence is the
reclaiming of the universe to God's sovereignty and glory. Christ's role and dignity are
instrumental and subordinate to this. There is a striking similarity between Phil 2:9-11 and
Rev 5, especially 5:13.
Concluding thoughts: There is no mention of resurrection; the hymn moves in other
categories of contrast: Divinity/humanity, abasement/exaltation, slavery/lordship. It
theologically situates the "story" of Jesus within the overall framework of God's
eschatological design to reclaim the universe to Himself, seeing the historical selfless
obedience of Christ foreshadowed in His pre-temporal "career", bringing to fulfillment the
OT spirituality of the Anawiim. Thus the Apostle summons the Philippians to live out the
selfless attitude (cf. fro,nein in v.5) that should well up within them on the basis of their
being "in Christ". In this way their lives will be caught up in the rhythm, scope, and ultimate
victory of the same divine plan.
The fact that Paul, in order to enforce some of the simplest moral duties, makes an
appeal to such profound mysteries shows, on the one hand, the intimate and natural
connection between Christian theological teaching and practical Christian life; and, on the
other hand, how thorough and profound must have been the instruction given the early
Christians by the Apostles.
Verses 6-11 contain the following clear teaching: (1) the Divinity of Jesus Christ, (2)
His consubstantiality with the Father, (3) the true humanity of Christ, (4) the union of two
natures in the one divine Person, (5) the merit of His sacrificial obedience and death.
Historically surprising is the early date of this profession of a pre-existent Christ.
2:19–3:1: The plans of Paul and his assistants for future travel are regularly a part of a
Pauline letter near its conclusion (cf. Rom 15:22-29; 1 Cor 16:5-12).
2:20: The apostle considers Timothy his alter ego: “I have no one like him
(ivso,yucon)”.
225
Means the underworld, the realm of the dead, of discarnate spirits.
83
2:25: Epaphroditus was sent by the Philippians as their messenger to aid Paul in his
imprisonment, he had seriously fallen ill; the Apostle commends him as he sends him back
to Philippi226; cf. reference to this Saint also in 4:18.
3:2: 3:2-21 represents an abrupt change in content and tone, maybe because Paul at this
point responds to disturbing news he has just heard about a threat to the faith of the
Philippians in the form of false teachers. Strongest term to express caution against false
teachers: “Beware of the dogs!” (Ble,pete tou.j ku,naj). Mutilation
(katatomh,), literally “incision”, an ironic wordplay on circumcision (peritomh,); cf.
Gal 5:12. There may be an association with the self-inflicted mutilations of the prophets of
Baal alluded to in 1Kgs 18:28, and of devotees of Cybele who slashed themselves in
religious frenzy.
3:5: fulh/j Beniami,n, AUGUSTINE sees a nexus with the patriarchal blessing of a
dying Jacob over his and Rachel’s last son, Gen 49:27 “Benjamin is a ravening wolf, in the
morning he devours the prey, in the evening he is still sharing out the spoil”.
3:7: His knowledge of Jesus led Paul to reassess the ways of truly pleasing and serving
God, a reevaluation that indicates the profound and lasting effect of his Damascus
experience some twenty years before.
3:19-21: Place of commenwealth (poli,teuma, cf. politei/a citizenship, Acts
22:28; Eph 2:12): Christians constitute a colony of heaven, as Philippi was a colonia
romana (Acts 16:12). St. AUGUSTINE enlarges this theme in his masterpiece De Civitate
Dei227.
4:3: Su,zugoj, yokemate, comrade, or also a proper name. Clement (Klh,mhnj)
identified with Clement of Rome, third successor of Peter228.
4:10-20: Paul’s own policy was to be self-sufficient as a missionary (1 Thess 2:5-9; 1
Cor 9:15-18; Acts 18:2f), supporting himself by his own labor. In spite of his reliance on
self and on God to provide Paul accepted gifts from the Philippians.
4:18: OT cultic language applied to the Philippians’ gift: ovsmh.n euvwdi,aj
(Aroma), qusi,an dekth,n( euva,reston tw/| qew (pleasing sacrifice), see
Gen 8:21; Exo 29:18.25.41; Lev 1:9.13; Eze 20:41.
XIII. The Letter to the Colossians, 63 A.D. (from Rome, 1st captivity)
Colossae: Ancient city of southwestern Phrygia in the Roman Province of Asia, in
the Lycos Valley 120 miles east from Ephesus on the great trade highway between the East
and the West. Decline with the growth of nearby Laodicea ca. 250 B.C.; in the time of Paul a
mere village. Heathen population: Phrygian, Greeks, some Jews. Completely devastated by
the Sáracens during the seventh and eighth centuries. Nothing remains of it now.
Martyrologium Romanum: “Die 22 martii, Commemoratio sancti Epaphrodíti, quem sanctus
Paulus apostolus fratrem, cooperatorem et commilitonem vocat.”
227
The ancient idea of the Greek “polis” with its pagan focus on the material city has to give way to
a Christian city promoting the primacy of the individual person, cf. BENEDICT XVI, Church Fathers
105f.
228
Cf. EUSEBIUS, Historia Ecclesiastica 3.15.1.
226
84
The Church of Colossae: Why did the Apostle address a letter to this unimportant
town , the least important place he ever wrote to? Nor had he been there himself at the
time of writing, cf. Col 1:4.6-8; 2:1. Explanation: it was the home of Epaphras, Philemon
and Onesimus, three special friends of his, and most probable founding evangelizers of
Colossae, cf. 1:7f; Phlm 1.
229
The Occasion and Purpose: The errors combated in this epistle, doubtless not
confined to Colossae, appear to have been prevalent there, owing to its situation on the great
trade highway and in the comparatively leisurely life of its people. In the first place, there
were Judaizers wishing to keep the rabbinical traditions; then errors230 of a semi-Gnostic
type of Jewish origin tending to detract from the dignity of Christ231. Their teachings
stressed angels (2:15.18) which were connected with astral powers and cultic practices
(2:16) and rules about food and drink and ascetical disciplines (“shadows”) that distracted
from the person and work of Christ (“reality” 2:17) for salvation as set forth magnificently
in a hymnic passage at 1:15-20, and reiterated throughout the letter.
Authorship and Integrity: Antiquity is unanimous in its favor232. The external
evidence is strong, thoroughly supported by the internal one. Nothing of any great moment
can be said against the integrity of Col233.
Date and Place of Composition: The connection between Eph, Col and Phlm is
extremely close. The literary affinity between the first two is remarkable. Tychicus is the
bearer of both of them, accompanied by Onesimus, who is carrying the letter to Philemon
(Eph 6:21; Col 4:7-9)234. All the proper names that occur in Phlm are in Col, too (with the
exception of Philemon himself and Appia, probably his wife). Hence it seems beyond doubt
that these three letters must have been written from the same place and about the same time,
i.e., from Rome, while Paul was in prison there235, around 61-63 A.D.
Structure:
Introduction, 1:1-8
I. Dogmatico-Polemical Part, 1:9–2:23
a. The preeminence of Christ, 1:9–2:3
b. Warnings against false teachers, 2:4-23
229
Rather than Laodicea or Hierapolis, for instance?
Which they tried to dignify as a "philosophy" (filosofi,a), cf. Col 2:8-23.
231
Holding that the angels were superior or at least equal to Him, and that we must have access to
God through them.
232
Expressly attributed to St. Paul by the Canon of Muratori, quoted by JUSTIN MARTYR, St.
IRENAEUS, CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA, ORIGEN, TERTULLIAN; traces of it are in CLEMENT OF
ROME, in the Epistle of BARNABAS, in St. IGNATIUS, St. THEOPHILUS OF ANTIOCH, in POLYCARP,
etc.
233
Excepting 2:18.23, where the variant readings are many and difficult.
234
The Roman imperial postal services processed no private mail: Christian churches early on
arranged for their own courier services (similar to the Jerusalem Sanhedrin).
235
Again, others suggest the captivity in Caesarea or Ephesus.
230
85
II. Moral Part, 3:1–4:6
Conclusion, 4:7-18
Exegesis of Col 1:12-20 (Hymn on Christ, the image of the invisible God): In this poem
Paul introduces two ways in which Christ can claim to be the ‘head’ of everything that
exists: (1) He is the head of creation, of that exists naturally, vv. 15-17; (2) He is the head of
the new creation and of all that exists supernaturally through having been saved, vv. 18-20.
The subject of the poem is the preexistent Christ, but considered only in so far as he was
manifest in the unique historic person that is the Son of God made man, cf. Phil 2:5ff.
The poetic lines of 1:15-20 are the most important part of Col, they constitute a
compendium of Christology: What Christ means in creation (cosmology) and redemption
(soteriology). Taken in conjunction with Eph 1:20-23; Phil 2:6-11, 1 Tim 3:16, and Hb
1:1ff, they represent Paul's most sublime thoughts relative to the person and dignity of
Christ. The Apostle here shows that Christ is anterior to all creation, His universal Lordship,
including the Church; in Him dwells the fullness of Divinity, through His sacrificial death
all things have been reconciled to the Father.
86
Christ’s Cosmic and Ecclesial Headship
euvcaristou/ntej tw/| patri. tw/| i`kanw,santi
u`ma/j eivj th.n meri,da tou/ klh,rou tw/n
a`gi,wn evn tw/| fwti,\
13 o]j evrru,sato h`ma/j evk th/j evxousi,aj tou/
sko,touj kai. mete,sthsen eivj th.n basilei,an
tou/ ui`ou/ th/j avga,phj auvtou/(
14 evn w-| e;comen th.n avpolu,trwsin( th.n
a;fesin tw/n a`martiw/n\
Introduction
12
Christic
Cosmology
15
Christic
Soteriology
18
Nova Vulgata
12 gratias agentes Patri, qui idoneos vos fecit in partem sortis sanctorum in lumine; 13
qui eripuit nos de potestate tenebrarum et transtulit in regnum Filii dilectionis suae,
14 in quo habemus redemptionem, remissionem peccatorum;
15 qui est imago Dei invisibilis, primogenitus omnis creaturae, 16 quia in
ipso condita sunt universa in caelis et in terra, visibilia et invisibilia, sive throni sive
dominations sive principatus sive potestates. Omnia per ipsum et in ipsum creata sunt,
17 et ipse est ante omnia, et omnia in ipso constant.
18 Et ipse est caput corporis ecclesiae; qui est principium, primogenitus ex
mortuis, ut sit in omnibus ipse primatum tenens, 19 quia in ipso complacuit omnem
plenitudinem habitare 20 et per eum reconciliare omnia in ipsum, pacificans per
sanguinem crucis eius, sive quae in terris sive quae in caelis sunt.
o[j evstin eivkw.n tou/ qeou/ tou/ avora,tou(
prwto,tokoj pa,shj kti,sewj(
16 o[ti evn auvtw/| evkti,sqh ta. pa,nta evn
toi/j ouvranoi/j kai. evpi. th/j gh/j( ta.
o`rata. kai. ta. avo,rata( ei;te qro,noi ei;te
kurio,thtej ei;te avrcai. ei;te evxousi,ai\ ta.
pa,nta diV auvtou/ kai. eivj auvto.n e;ktistai\
17 kai. auvto,j evstin pro. pa,ntwn kai. ta.
pa,nta evn auvtw/| sune,sthken(
kai. auvto,j evstin h` kefalh. tou/ sw,matoj
th/j evkklhsi,aj\ o[j evstin avrch,( prwto,tokoj
evk tw/n nekrw/n( i[na ge,nhtai evn pa/sin
auvto.j prwteu,wn(
19 o[ti evn auvtw/| euvdo,khsen pa/n to. plh,rwma
katoikh/sai
20 kai. diV auvtou/ avpokatalla,xai ta. pa,nta
eivj auvto,n( eivrhnopoih,saj dia. tou/ ai[matoj
tou/ staurou/ auvtou/( ÎdiV auvtou/Ð ei;te ta.
evpi. th/j gh/j ei;te ta. evn toi/j ouvranoi/jÅ
87
Verses 12-14 are a summary about redemption by the Father preceding the statement
about the beloved Son who is God’s love in person, vv.15-20. Verses 15-20, poetically
arranged, present Christ as the mediator of creation (vv.15-17) and of redemption (vv.1820). There is a parallelism between firstborn of all creation (v.15) and firstborn from the
dead (v.18). The basic hymnic ideas mirror OT sapiential thought, cf. Prov 8:22-31; Wis
7:22–8:1; Sir 1:4.
1:12: euvcaristou/ntej tw/| patri. tw/| i`kanw,santi
u`ma/j eivj th.n meri,da tou/ klh,rou tw/n a`gi,wn evn tw/|
fwti,\
As becomes dutiful and grateful children whom the Father has admitted to a share in
the inheritance of the saints. This Kingdom (entered through baptism236, i.e., fwtismo,j
enlightenment) is "in light" (probably the angels), as opposed to the kingdom of darkness
over which Satan presides, cf. Eph 5:8; 6:12; 1 Thess 5:5; Rom 13:12; Acts 26:18.
1:13: o]j evrru,sato h`ma/j evk th/j evxousi,aj tou/
sko,touj kai. mete,sthsen eivj th.n basilei,an tou/ ui`ou/
th/j avga,phj auvtou/(
The imagery (“delivered” ... “transferred”) reflects the Exodus and the synoptic
theme of the Kingdom. It was by delivering us from the power of sin and Satan and making
us members of the Kingdom of His Son that the Father has made us Christians.
"Power of darkness", the dominion of Satan who rules over those not regenerated by
Christ.
"Delivered", aorist, expressing the negative aspect of regeneration, cf. Ex 6:6;
14:30; Judg 6:9.
"Translated", aorist, denoting the positive aspect of sanctification, stressing the
Father's initiative.
"Kingdom", i.e., the Church Militant.
"Son of His love", a Semitism, meaning "His beloved Son".
1:14: evn w-| e;comen th.n avpolu,trwsin( th.n a;fesin
tw/n a`martiw/n\
The relative clause "in whom we have" speaks of the new life in Christ.
"Redemption" (avpolu,trwsij) is often used with an eschatological sense, cf. Rom
8:23; Eph 1:14; 4:30. Redemption is defined as the forgiveness of sins, cf. Rom 3:24f; Acts
2:38. This verse sets the stage for the Christ-Hymn below, vv.15-20, presenting Jesus as the
mediator of creation (vv.15-17) and of redemtpion (vv.18-20), with a salient parallelism
between firstborn of all creation (v.15) and firstborn from the dead (v.18).
1:15: o[j evstin eivkw.n tou/ qeou/ tou/ avora,tou(
prwto,tokoj pa,shj kti,sewj.
"Image"237, i.e., inward utterance238 and perfect
239
expression , cf. Jn 14:9; Gen 1:27. A title of sovereignty.
236
Paul never mentions John the Baptist in all of his writings; he does refer to him in his inaugural
speech Acts 13:24f, and in Ephesus, Acts 19:4.
237
“Those who in principle reject the icon [cf. iconoclasm], ultimately also reject the mystery of the
Incarnation.” St. THEODORE THE STUDITE, PG 99, 472A-473A.
238
The Word reflecting the Intelligence producing Him. PLATO had already called the cosmos the
visible image of God (Tim, 92c); this understanding (creation as divine revelation) was taken over by
Hellenistic Judaism and transferred to "Wisdom" (sofi,a), cf. Prov 8:22; Wis 7:26; PHILO
describes Wisdom as "'beginning' and 'image' and 'vision' of God" (Leg. All. 1.43), in that he grants
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"Firstborn of every creature", i.e., cf. 1:18, born from all eternity, prior to and above
all creation (pre-existence240, superiority as primordial creative agent), as proved in the
following verse. The concept of the first-born ([i] pre-eminence in birth [belonging to God],
[ii] rank [leadership over siblings upon the father’s death] and [iii] inheritance [principal
heir: recipient of father’s special blessing and double allotment of estate]) is relevant to the
OT and NT message: Gen 48:18; Num 18:15; Ps 89:27; Lk 2:7; Mt 1:25; Rom 8:29f; Col
3:1-4
1:16: o[ti evn auvtw/| evkti,sqh ta. pa,nta evn toi/j
ouvranoi/j kai. evpi. th/j gh/j( ta. o`rata. kai. ta.
avo,rata( ei;te qro,noi ei;te kurio,thtej ei;te avrcai. ei;te
evxousi,ai241\ ta. pa,nta diV auvtou/ kai. eivj auvto.n
e;ktistai\
"In heaven and on earth", i.e., the whole created universe242.
"Thrones"243 (qro,noi) and "dominions" (kurio,thtej), cf. 1 Cor 8:5, were
occasionally specified in Judaism among the heavenly hosts of angels244.
"Principalities/rulers" (avrcai,) and "powers", cf. v. 13 (evxousi,ai) are often
named as being supermundane beings and powers245.
En/di,a/eivj/pro,: “in Him, by Him and unto Him”, efficient, exemplary and
final cause of all beings.
e;ktistai: perfect passive; fact from the past, continual effect and relevance.
1:17: kai. auvto,j evstin pro. pa,ntwn kai. ta. pa,nta evn
auvtw/| sune,sthken( stressing the pre-existence and pre-eminence as well as the
creative power of Christ.
"Consist" (sune,sthken perfect tense, active voice, of suni,sthmi), lit.
"stand together, hang together, cohere", perpetual conservation of creation.
to her the same dignity as to the Logos, which itself is called "the Beginning and the Name of God
and His Word and the Man after His image". According to apocalyptic expectations she will
reappear in the last times when her spirit will dwell in the Son of Man; he will act in the power of
Wisdom and he will execute judgment (1 En 49:1-4). Thus Wisdom is not only the mediatrix of
creation but also of salvation, and cosmology and soteriology are related to one another in Wisdom.
239
St. GREGORY NAZIANZEN: "The Word is image in so far as He proceeds from the Father, for it is
of the nature of an image to be a reproduction, a copy of its archetype."
240
Similar to the Jewish speculation about "Wisdom".
241
The different names mark differences of rank and function
242
To emphasize his doctrine against the false teachers who were denying the Divinity of Christ and
maintaining a chain of angelic mediators between God and the world. When needed, Paul
recommends respect for angels, but he would not have this shown at Christ's expense. He knows that
angels brought the Law to Moses (Gal 3:19; Hb 2:2), that they dwell in heaven (Gal 1:8), and in
light (2 Cor 11:14), that they are present at the solemn ceremonies of the Church (1 Cor 11:10), and
in the conflicts and triumphs of the Gospel (1 Cor 4:9), that they will accompany the Supreme Judge
at the Last Day (2 Thess 1:7), and that one archangel will give the signal for the resurrection (1
Thess 4:16). He only forbids the arbitrary worship of angels derogatory to the unique honor of Jesus
Christ.
243
This is the only occurrence where "thrones" refer to supernatural beings.
244
Cf. ex.gr., 2 En 20:1; Test. Levi 3:8.
245
Cf. 1 Cor 15:24; Rom 8:38; Eph 1:21; 2 En 61:10.
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1:18: kai. auvto,j evstin h` kefalh. tou/ sw,matoj th/j
evkklhsi,aj\ o[j evstin avrch,( prwto,tokoj evk tw/n nekrw/n(
i[na ge,nhtai evn pa/sin auvto.j prwteu,wn( Christ is also the creator
of the new spiritual order of things inasmuch as He repaired and redeemed all things; He is
the founder and head of that Mystical Body which is His Church, cf. Rom 12:4-8; 1 Cor
12:12-17. Paul crosses over from knowledge of God into the economy of salvation. The
opening "he" (auvto,j) is emphatic, cf. 1:17: "He Himself and no other". Only in Eph and
Col (1:18) is Christ the head of the body, in contrast to the view in 1 Cor 12:12-27.16:16f,
and Rom 12:4-8, where Christ is equated with the entire body or community. Thus, in Col
and Eph the Body of Christ symbolism has been transformed: first, the Body of Christ is
explicitly equated with the Church (cf. Eph 1:22f; 5:23); second, the symbol has been
augmented: Christ has become the Head while the believers make up His Body (1:18.24;
2:10.17.19; Eph 1:22; 4:4.15-16; 5:23). His Body becomes the vehicle of cosmic
reconciliation because of the underlying equivalence between the universe and the Church
established in the "Head" (kefalh,), cf. 2:10246. Greek Fathers called the Church the
“cosmos of the cosmos” (ko,smoj tou/ ko,smou).
"Who is the beginning", i.e., efficient cause and creator, fountain and author of grace
and glory.
"First-born from the dead", i.e., the first in time to be raised from the dead, thus
becoming the principle and model of all who belong to Him, of redeemed creation247. In
both orders (creation and re-creation, that is, natural [ordo naturae] and supernatural [ordo
gratiae])
i[na ge,nhtai evn pa/sin: subjunctive middle aorist, expressing God’s
desire to have all humans accept His rule. It is best to translate ge,nhtai here as
"become", contrasting with the preceding evsti,n "is": v.17 refers to Christ's place in the
universe where He is and always has been supreme;
He holds the primacy (proteu,wn) of power and dignity248. v.18 refers to what
Christ has accomplished through His death. This phrase, therefore, reveals an awareness of
a particular moment in history when Christ's supremacy in relation to the Church was
revealed.
1:19: o[ti evn auvtw/| euvdo,khsen pa/n to. plh,rwma
katoikh/sai, in Christ, at the time of His Incarnation, it pleased the Father, that all the
fullness of Divinity, and consequently of grace and truth (Jn 1:14), the sum total of
redemptive power through the Hypostatic Union of the divine and human natures in the one
Person of the Word, should take up its abode249.
246
The comparison of the whole cosmos to the body is well attested in ancient Greek sources (see
PLATO, Timaeus 28B) and can also be found in Hellenistic Judaism. PHILO OF ALEXANDRIA spoke
of the body of the cosmos needing the eternal logos of God who is the head of the universe (Quaest.
in Ex. 2.68).
247
See also BENEDICT XVI, Jesus of Nazareth, The Infancy Narratives 2012, 70-71.
248
Sometimes the expressions "firstborn" and "beginning" occur together in Jewish literature to
describe the founder of a people, cf. LXX Gen 49:3; LXX Dt 21:17.
249
ORIGEN of Alexandria calls Jesus the Auto-basileía, the “Kingdom in person”, Commentary on
the Gospel of Matthew, PG XIII, 1197.
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"Fullness" (plh,rwma)250, plenitude of the Godhead bodily, cf. 2:9; Eph 1:23. Paul
seizes upon this term in order to correct the abuse of it251, as St. John wrests from the
heretics of his time the term Logos (Lo,goj) and gives it an orthodox meaning. Without
entering into debate over the existence of angelic spirits or their function, Paul simply
affirms that Christ possesses the sum total of redemptive power.
"Should dwell", i.e., the Greek implies permanency of dwelling. Calls to mind
Hebrew Scripture where a connection exists between God's choosing and God's dwelling
place: In LXX Ps 67:17, for instance, Zion is identified as the mountain on which it pleased
God to dwell. Some see an innuendo to the baptismal language in Mk 1:11: "You are my
beloved Son, in whom I am well pleased!" It also evokes John's Prologue 1:14, the
Incarnation.
1:20: kai. diV auvtou/ avpokatalla,xai ta. pa,nta eivj
auvto,n( eivrhnopoih,saj dia. tou/ ai[matoj tou/ staurou/
auvtou/( ÎdiV auvtou/Ð ei;te ta. evpi. th/j gh/j ei;te ta.
evn toi/j ouvranoi/jÅ
In the second place, it has pleased the Father through Christ (di vauvtou/) to
reconcile all things to Himself: the references Rom 5:10 and 2 Cor 5:18f show that we
should understand eivj auvto,n here to mean the Father rather than the Son.
"Making peace", i.e., the only occurrence of eivrhnopoie,w in the NT (hápax
legómenon), reminding of Mt 5:9, the "blessed peace-makers". Suffering and death is
pivotal to the salvation of the universe; historical and physical experiences are fundamental
to redemption, 1 Cor 1:18; 2 Cor 5:11-21.
"on earth and in heaven", i.e., Christ is the only medium of reconciliation
(spiritual/material; human/angelic), cf. Eph 1:10252.
"[Through Him]", there is some mss variation related to this square-bracketed
wording, missing from many of them, due to its awkwardness (albeit retained in modern
critical editions of the Greek NT, cf. NESTLE-ALAND, ed. xxvii). The expression may be
tautological, but it may also be emphatic: "through Him alone", referring then back to
"through Him to reconcile" at the verse beginning.
250
17 times in NT, 12 times in Paul (NVg plenitudo), having three meanings: (1) plenitude of
fulfillment, (2) complement or supplement, (3) accomplishment; like other nouns ending in -ma it
designates either the result of an action, or the action itself considered as finished, and not properly
the action of filling, completing of accomplishing. Philosophically the opposite of ke,nwma =
void.
251
The Gnostics (going back the CERINTHUS) called Pléroma the whole combination of divine
emanations, the sum-total of the Divine diffused throughout the universe. We then obtain the Pauline
meaning: the divine essence is not dispersed in a multitude of aeons, forming a chain of links
between matter and the Absolute; rather, it is wholly comprised and concentrated in Christ. The
plenitude of divinity is the combined sum of perfections which constitute the divine essence: in other
words, Divinity itself. In order to dwell bodily, it is necessary that He be substantially united to
humanity so as to form with it a theandric compound, as the soul by dwelling in the body constitutes
with it one single nature (equivalent to Jn 1:14a).
252
To explain how the death of Christ effected reconciliation between the angelic world and the
Father some have quoted Eph 3:10. Thus, mankind is cleansed and restored to divine favor, while
angels acquire greater knowledge and joy as a result of man's salvation (cf. J. KNABENBAUER, S.J.).
Others think that Christ's propitiation brought the world of the angels into closer union with God,
thus making them less alien than they had been before (ALFORD, MOULE).
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vv.21-23: In applying the hymn to the Colossians, Paul reminds them that they have
experienced the reconciling effect of Christ’s death, urging them to adherence in faith.
Corollary: The hymn emphasizes the universal significance of the Christ-event by
exhibiting its cosmic dimensions and by speaking of salvation for the whole creation. To
sing about Christ's Body as the topos for the reconciliation of the universe was no mere
pious sentiment; it was a proclamation of the incredible power that had been made known
through the Blood of the Cross and the ultimate justification of a universal mission (the
missionary body of Christ). The reference to the 'powers' and 'principalities' proclaims the
headship of Christ over all things. This means, however, that the comprehension of the
cosmological statements of the first hymnic part is disclosed only by the soteriological
remarks of the second strophe. The epic drama, wherein the principalities are stripped of
their power and the reconciliation of all things has taken place, is for the sake of man alone.
To him comes the word of peace wrought by Christ. This peace now holds sway in the
realm in which He rules, here and now, as the beloved Son of the Father, in the Church, in
His Body, over which He is the Head253. Last not least, the basic ideas also reflect OT
Wisdom (cf. Prv 8:22-31; Wis 7:22–8:1; Sir 1:4; see also Jn 1:1-18).
1:24–2:3: In his absence he invests his teaching with authority by presenting a brief
sketch of his apostolic work. V.24 does not imply that Jesus’ vicarious atonement was
defective; rather, it reveals the mystical union of the believer with the body of Christ.
2:11-12: A description of baptism in symbolic terms of the OT rite for entry into the
community.
2:14: An elaborate metaphor shows how God canceled the legal claims against us
through the cross. Not Christ, but the bond (ceiro,grafon toi/j do,gmasin) is
depicted as being nailed to the cross by God.
2:15-18: False teachers emphasized Christ’s relation to the universe (ko,smoj),
stressing the role of the angels (cf. 2:15) which were connected with astral powers254 and
cultic practices (cf. 2:16) and rules about food and drink and ascetical disciplines. These
teachings, Paul insists, detract from the person and work of Christ for salvation (cf. 1:15-20;
2:17). It is unnecessary for the Christian to be concerned about placating spirits (2:15) or
avoiding imagined defilement through ascetical practices in regard to food and drink (2:2023). True asceticism consists in the conquering of personal sins (cf. 3:5-10) and the practice
of love of neighbor (3:12-16).
2:15: The picture derives from the public spectacle and triumph of a Roman emperor’s
victory parade, where captives marched in subjection. The principalities and the powers are
here conquered, not reconciled (cf.1:16.20), by the Christus Triumphator255, cf. Eph 4:8;
Rev 19:11; Psa 2.
2:18: Ascetic practices encouraged by the false teachers included subjection of self
humbly to their rules, worship of angels, and cultivation of visions, though exact details are
unclear.
253
Cf. MACDONALD, M.Y., Colossians and Ephesians, Sacra Pagina Series 17, Collegeville 2000,
pp. 58-70.
254
BENEDICT XVI in Jesus of Nazareth, The Infancy Narratives 2012, speaks of the biblical
demythologization of astral deities, p. 101.
255
Cf. HOECK, «Christ is the parade».
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3:5.8: The two lists of five vices each are similar to enumerations at Rom 1:29-31; Gal
5:19-21.
3:11: The Scythians are a barbarous people from north of the Black Sea.
3:18-25: Within this table of duties in family and societal relations, involving wives and
husbands, children and parents, such as appears in Eph 5:22–6:9, slaves here receive special
attention because of Onesimus the slave returning to his master (4:9; Phlm 10-12).
4:10: Mark, also referred to by Phlm 24 and 2 Tim 4:11, and as “John Mark” in Acts
12:12.25; 13:13; 15:37-40; 1 Pt 5:13; Traditionally the author of the second Gospel.
4:14: Luke, only here described as medical doctor (Phlm 24; 2 Tim 4:11), traditionally
the author of the third Gospel.
4:16: th.n evk Laodikei,aj: Either a letter by Paul that has been lost, or the
Letter to the Ephesians.
4:17: We know from Phlm v. 2 that Archippus was a sustratiw,thj “fellow
soldier” (NVg commilitonis); the Martyrologiuum Romanum lists him as a Saint, “Die 20
Martii, commemoratio Sancti Archippi, commilitonis beati Pauli Apostoli, cuius ipse in
Epistulis ad Philemonem et ad Colossenses méminit”.
4:18: A postscript in Paul’s own hand was his custom: ~O avspasmo.j th/|
evmh/| ceiri. Pau,lou, cf. Gal 6:11-18; 2 Thess 3:17f.
XIV. The Letter to Philemon, 63 A.D. (from Rome, 1st captivity)
Philemon: Correspondent of Paul's, addressee of the shortest letter, most probably
native of Colossae. He likely owed his conversion to the Apostle (cf. Phlm 19; Acts 19:26),
who calls him his "fellow-laborer" (Phlm 1, 13, 17, 22); a man of means (owned slaves,
charitable and hospitable, Phlm 2, 5-7, 22). According to tradition Philemon became a
Bishop of Colossae256, and was martyred there in company with Appia (his wife?),
Archippus (his son or brother? cf. Phlm 1, 2; employed in some ministry in the Colossian
Church, cf. Col 4:17), and Onesimus during the Neronian persecution257.
Occasion and Purpose: One of Philemon's slaves, Onesimus258, perhaps after
robbing his master (cf. Phlm 18), had fled away to Rome, having previously heard of the
Apostle from his master. He was converted to the faith by Paul, cf. Phlm 10f. Observing the
fine qualities of his new convert, Paul would have gladly retained him for service in Rome
(Phlm 10, 13), but he knew the fugitive's first duty was to his master; and he also knew that
death was the ordinary punishment for a runaway slave (or the branding with an “F” for
fugitivus). He sends him therefore back to Philemon, accompanied by Tychicus and bearing
this letter in which he gracefully and tactfully pleads pardon for the offender and requests
that he be taken back in kindness by his master, both as a personal favor (Phlm 9, 11, 14),
256
Cf. Apost. Const., vii. 46.
Cf. Menæa of Nov. 22.
258
Martyrologium Romanum, February 15th: “Commemoratio beati Onésimi, quem sanctus Paulus
Apostolus servum fugitivum except et in vinculis utpote Christi in fide filium genuit, sicut ipse
domino eius Philémoni scripsit”; some sources connect this Onesimus with a posterior bishop of
Ephesus.
257
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and on the ground that Onesimus is now a brother in Christ (Phlm 16). Paul even hints at the
manumission of the fugitive, fearing to request it openly and directly (Phlm 21). Verse 16
voices an idea revolutionary in that day and destined to break down worldly barriers of
divisions “in the Lord”.
Date and Place of Composition: Written in Rome during Paul's first captivity there,
between 61 and 63 A.D. For arguments, see under the same heading in the Introduction to
Colossians.
Authenticity: Because of the non-doctrinal contents, its brevity, and its personal and
private character, one should not expect it to be quoted by the Apostolic Fathers, nor widely
recognized in public at an early date. And yet the external evidence in favor of its
genuineness is relatively strong259. The internal evidence is also above all serious
questioning. In vocabulary, phraseology and style, it is remarkably like the other Pauline
letters and, in particular, like the three other Captivity Epistles (Eph, Phil, Col), written
about the same time.
Slavery: A universal institution in all ancient nations, market feature of GraecoRoman civilization, where slaves constituted the vast bulk of the population. In fact, the
social standing of Roman masters was rated according to the number of their slaves, who
were a piece of property260, living for most of the parts in unnatural, degrading conditions.
While internally uncompromisingly opposed to slavery, Paul adjusted himself to it
politically and externally for the time being, lest by attacking the evil directly they should
bring upon the Gospel the wrath of the existing powers, or even of civil war. His hope was a
future betterment and emancipation which the Church would effect in the oncoming
centuries. Christianity’s emphasis has always been on the transformation of individuals
(appealing to their consciences) who will in turn influence society, not the transformation of
society which will then transform individuals (cf. 1 Cor 1:18–2:16). Phlm really marks the
embryonic beginning of a Christian Declaration of Human Rights, based on the Magna
Charta of Christian Freedom found in Gal! Regarding the spiritualization of one’s Godordained state of life, see 1 Cor 7:21-24. It is noteworthy that the early Church focused on
the dignity of the person regardless his/her social status: slaves were admitted to all
ecclesiastical ministries including the highest (see pope Calixtus, for instance).
Analysis: Introduction (vv.1-7): Paul, a prisoner in Rome, addresses Philemon, a
well-to-do Colossian, and his household, wishing them grace and peace, and thanking God
for the charitable manifestation of Philemon's faith in behalf of the poor Christians. May the
Christians derive from their practical experience of the fruits of faith as produced by
Philemon a fuller appreciation of the power of the Gospel. The report of it all has rejoiced
the Apostle. v.1: By underlining his captivity he appeals as a prisoner rather than the apostle
commanding, but also sympathizes with the fugitive slave. v.7: Para,klhsij is cognate
to the verb “to urge” (paraka,lein) in vv.9-10, serving as an intro to the Apostle’s plea;
259
See Muratorian Fragment, Old Syriac and Latin versions, Origen, Tertullian, Eusebius, Jerome,
John Chrysostom, Marcion.
260
Ancient Roman Law: Servus non habet personam.
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moreover, spla,gcna literally “bowels”, expressing in a Semitic fashion the seat of
emotions, one’s inmost visceral self.
Body (vv.8-22): Paul pleads with his friend Philemon to receive back his runaway
slave Onesimus who has become a Christian while in Rome. V.21 "and more", hinting
perhaps at Onesimus' complete manumission from the state of slavery (vv.8-21), and asks
that a lodging be made ready for himself in preparation for his forthcoming visit to Colossae
(v.22). v.8: Parrhsi,a “boldness/frankness”, connotes the full franchise of speech as the
right of a citizen to speak before the body politic, claimed by the Athenians as their
privilege (Euripides). v.11: Paul here plays on the name Onesimus which means
“beneficial/useful/helpful”, akin also to ovni,nami in v.20. vv.18-19: Employment of
technical, legal and commercial terms to describe the addresse’s indebtedness.
Conclusion (vv.23-25): Paul in closing includes the greetings of his companions in
Rome, who are the same as those mentioned at the close of Col (4:10-14), with the
exception of Jesus who was called Justus. The blessing is for Philemon and his household,
as in v.2.
XV. The First Letter to Timothy, 65 A.D. (from Rome, 2st captivity)
Pastoral Epistles: 1/2 Tim and Ti are commonly known as Pastoral Letters,
inasmuch as they are addressed to the heads of Churches in their capacity of pastors of
souls, whose duty it was to oversee, guide and instruct those committed to their care, to
guard against error and preserve the purity of apostolic teaching, to set by example a high
standard of Christian life, and to provide through careful selection, training and ordination
successors to carry on the preaching of the Gospel. All three suggest they were written late
in Paul’s career. Though addressing specific times and conditions pertinent to their own age,
these letters are invaluable to us for the information they supply regarding primitive Church
organization and discipline, early heresies, the qualifications of Christian teachers and
leaders, the duties of pastors, the ideals of zeal and devotion that should ever animate those
in priestly ministry, and for the information they afford regarding the last years and
activities of Paul.
Authenticity: The witness of the Early Church to their place in the NT canon and
their Pauline authorship is as clear, full and unhesitating as that given to the other letters261.
Timothy: Paul's most faithful disciple and closest friend: Phil 2:20f; born at Lystra
of a Greek father and a Jewish mother (Acts 16:1; 2 Tim 1:5). He embraced Christianity
with his mother and grandmother when Paul preached at Lystra (first missionary journey,
Acts 14:6ff), circumcised, then ordained by Paul (Acts 16:1-3; 1 Tim 4:14; 2 Tim 1:6f). His
constant companion. With Paul in Rome (first imprisonment); appointed bishop of
261
Allusions to and quotations from them can be found in the writings of CLEMENT OF ROME,
Epistle of BARNABAS, IGNATIUS OF ANTIOCH, POLYCARP, JUSTIN MARTYR, HERACLEON,
HEGESIPPUS, ATHENAGORAS of Athens, TERTULLIAN, IRENAEUS, CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA,
ORIGEN, etc.
95
Ephesus262; martyred there in his old age for interfering with the celebration of a licentious
heathen feast; his body brought to Constantinople263.
Occasion, Date, and Place of Writing: The letter presupposes a longer existence of
the church in Ephesus, complete with hierarchy and heresies; at the time of Acts 20:29f
there was no heresy there yet: thus, 1 Tim must have been composed between Paul’s first
(Acts 28:16) and second captivity in Rome, 65 A.D. (eventuating in his execution under
emperor Nero in Rome), to assist him in combating the false teachers at Ephesus, to give
him rules regarding the careful choice of ministers of the Gospel. The Apostle was
imprisoned for the second and last time in Rome when he wrote his testamental and more
personal 2 Tim, shortly before his death in 67 A.D., the traditional date of his martyrdom.
Division264:
1 Tim: Introduction, 1:1f
A. First instruction, 1:3-20 (combat errors of false teachers)
B. Second instruction, 2:1-15 (prayer)
C. Third instruction, 3:1-16 (ecclesial ministers)
D. Fourth instruction, 4:1-16 (warning against heretics)
E. Fifth instruction, 5:1–6:2 (old and young folk)
F. Sixth instruction, 6:3-19 (against teachers of unsound doctrine)
Conclusion, 6:20f
2 Tim: Introduction, 1:1f
Exhortation, 1:3–2:13 (grace of ordination, diligent discharge of duty)
Instruction, 2:14–4:18 (avoid useless wranglings and disputes)
Conclusion, 4:19-22 (greetings, blessing)
1 Tim 1:3-7: Outline of Timothy’s initial task in Ephesus: to suppress the idle religious
speculations and useless conjectures probably about the OT figures.
1:8-11: The Christian values the OT not as a system of law but as the first stage in God’s
revelation of His saving plan, which is brought to fulfillment in the NT. See the first of two
vice catalogues in 1:9-10; cf. 6:4-5265.
1:10: Arsenokoi,thj = practising homosexual, cf. 1 Cor 6:9.
1:15: “This saying is trustworthy” (pisto.j o` lo,goj) regularly introduces in
the Pastorals a basic truth of early Christian faith, cf. 3:1; 4:9; 2 Tim 2:11; Ti 3:8.
1:17: “King of ages” (basilei/ tw/n aivw,nwn) through Semitic influence,
the Greek expression could mean “everlasting King” or “King of the universe”.
1:18: “In accordance with the prophetic word once spoken about you” (kata.
ta.j proagou,saj evpi. se. profhtei,aj)266 probably refers to testimonies
262
Cf. EUSEBIUS, Hist. Eccl., III, iv, 6; Apost. Constit., vii, 46.
According to JEROME.
264
See CALLAN, C.J., The Epistles of St. Paul, New York 1951, pp. 258f.
265
Cf. HOECK, «Equipping the Successors of the Apostles».
266
The Greek may also be translated, “the prophecies that led (me) to you”.
263
96
given by charismatic figures in the Christian communities on occasion of his episcopal
ordination.
1:20: Hymenaeus is mentioned in 2 Tim 2:17 as saying that the resurrection has
already taken place. Alexander the coppersmith (see 2 Tim 4:14) did a great harm to the
apostle. His condemnation is similar to the one of the incestuous man (1 Cor 5:5).
2:5: A primitive creed, a Christian version of the Jewish Shemá, Dt 6:4-5.
2:9-15: Role of women in liturgical assemblies and society (cf. 1 Cor 14:34): their
dress should be appropriate to the occasion, virtue being their principal adornment; their
conduct should reflect the role of man’s helpmate (Gen 2:18) and not the later relationship
of Eve to Adam (Gen 3:6-7).
Exegesis of 1 Tim 3:1-7 (Conduct of the Bishop): Paul's imperative insistence on the
high personal, moral and ethical equipment of those who are to take the leading part in the
government and work of the Church springs from the very nature and from the holy
character of this organization to which God has committed His truth for the enlightenment
of the world and the salvation of mankind267. No list of qualifications for presbyters appears
in 1 Tim. The presbyter-bishop here and in Ti lacks certain functions reserved for Paul and
Timothy.
3:1: "Desires", ovre,gw lit. to stretch oneself toward, to aspire to, to strive for,
long for, to reach out to, cf. Heb 11:16.
"Bishop" (evpiskoph,)268, "superintendent", confronting the interpreter with
historical and exegetical problems: why are bishops and deacons described in very similar
ways? The titles and responsibilities of the various church offices had not yet become fixed.
In Ti 1:5.7 "bishop" (evpi,skopoj) is used convertibly with "presbyter"
(presbu,teroj). Everywhere in the NT these terms are applied only to those who,
having received a special sacramental consecration, are placed in charge of Churches with
power to preach, celebrate the divine mysteries, etc269. Under the term "bishop" Paul
probably includes also priests, this would explain why he passes in the next section, vv.813, to speak of deacons, omitting all separate mention of priests as such. A distinction can
be made in the NT between the terms epískopos and presbýteros: (1) the difference in name
points to a difference in duty, although no doubt many duties would be common to both,
especially in primitive and half-organized communities; (2) the bishops were originally
selected by the presbyteral council, and probably from their own body; (3) there were often
several bishops in one place; (4) a conspicuous part of the bishop's ministry was the
administration of worship, the leitourgía (leitourgi,a) in the largest sense. He is the
representative of his church and the director of its discipline270.
267
The notion of hierarchical order in a religious community existed in Israel before the time of
Christ, as evidenced in the Dead Sea Scrolls of Qumran.
268
Etymologically, (1) the presence of divine power to benefit or save, coming visitation; (2) as a
demonstration of the divine power to punish, visitation, reckoning, cf. 1 Pt 2:12; (3) as the position
of an overseer, office, responsibility.
269
Cf. Acts 20:28; Phil 1:1; 1 Tim 3:2; Ti 1:5.7.
270
Based on the NT and the Apostolic Fathers' distinction between bishops, priests and deacons (cf.
IGNATIUS OF ANTIOCH), the COUNCIL OF TRENT has settled the divine origin of the Episcopate, the
Presbyterate, and the Diaconate.
97
"A good work", but one of labor and responsibility rather than honor271. In spite of
the regard in which those "bishops" were held by the faithful, there seems to have been a
shortage of candidates for the office. Paul encourages a generous response by those who feel
the Lord's call272.
3:2: Paul enumerates some of the outstanding moral and ethical qualities which
candidates for the episcopate must possess (see Ti 1:6-9).
"Husband of one wife", does not mean that a bishop had to be married, but that if he
was married and his wife died he should not remarry, see parallel clause in v.12273. General
celibacy for the clergy was not universally practised in the early years of the Church, when
all the members were converts from Judaism or paganism and were usually already married;
hence the law of celibacy was enacted later, though it was counseled in 1 Cor 7274.
The candidate for the episcopal ministry must be "irreproachable"
(avnepi,lhmpton), i.e., not to be laid hold of, of blameless moral conduct; "sober"
(nhfa,lion), i.e., without wine, temperate, abstinent; "prudent" (sw,frona), i.e.,
having a sound and healthy mind, having the ability to curb desires and impulses so as to
produce a measured and orderly, self-controlled life; "moderate" (ko,smion), i.e., well
arranged, honorable, disciplined, respectable, sensible, modest; "hospitable"
(filo,xenon), i.e., given to hospitality, loving and kind toward strangers; "skillful and
able in teaching" (didaktiko,n).
3:3: "not given to wine" (pa,roinon), i.e., addicted to wine, drunkard; "nor
brawling" (plhkth,n), i.e., a pugnacious or quarrelsome person, striker, bully; "kind"
(evpieikh,), i.e., gentle, forbearing; "peaceable" (a;macon), i.e., not disposed to fight
or contend; "not covetous" (avfila,rguron), i.e., not loving money, not greedy, liberal,
generous275.
3:4f: In case the candidate for the ministry of bishop was married and had children,
it was well first to see how he governed his own household, before allowing him to rule in
the Church of God. Verse 5 is parenthetical and gives the reason for the direction contained
in v.4: a bad father of a family will make a bad ruler in the Church, and one of the chief
functions of a bishop is to rule.
3:6: "not a recent convert" (neo,futon), i.e., newly planted, not recently
converted to Christianity; "puffed up" (tufwqe.ij), lit. beclouded, wrapped in smoke or
mist; "fall into the condemnation of the devil", i.e., into the same disapprobation passed on
the devil for his pride, cf. Isa 14:12-14; Ez 28:11-17. “The devil’s punishment” (kri,ma
evmpe,sh| tou/ diabo,lou) can mean (a) the punishment once incurred by him
(objective genitive), or (b) the punishment brought about by him (subjective genitive). Some
authorities claim that the context requires to take "of the devil" (tou/ diabo,lou) as a
subjective, instead of an objective genitive, meaning the condemnation passed by the devil,
271
See the play on honor and onus in ST. AUGUSTINE, De Civitate Dei, xix. 19.
Cf. VATICAN II, Lumen Gentium 18; PIUS XII, Menti nostrae 36.
273
Second marriages were looked upon as a sign of incontinence and self-indulgence, and so as
unbecoming the high spiritual ministry of a bishop.
274
Cf. C. COCHINI, The Apostolic Origins of Priestly Spirituality, San Francisco 1990.
275
St. JEROME says: "Ignominia omnium sacerdotum est propriis studere divitiis." Ad Nepot., Ep. 52,
no. 6; St. John Vianney once said that the secret of his priesthood was to give everything away and
not to withhold anything.
272
98
and not that pronounced on him; and that the word diábolos means here slanderer,
calumniator, detractor or accuser276. In this interpretation the accuser would be one of those
people, to be found in every community, whose delight is to find fault with the demeanor
and conduct of anyone professing a strict rule of life; and so the candidate must try to
regulate his life in such a manner as not to fall under the judgment of slanderers.
3:7: The bishop, as the chief representative of the Church, must also have a good
reputation with his heathen neighbors; otherwise he cannot hope to make converts to the
faith, he is apt to lose prestige among the faithful themselves, and thus he becomes exposed
to "reproach and a snare of the devil". For the interpretation of this last phrase, see above on
the preceding verse.
3:11: Does gunai,kaj refer to “women deacons” (since they are introduced with
by “similarly” as in v.8, suggesting that they too exercised ecclesiastical functions) or
“wives of deacons” (a possessive “their” would be expected)?
3:16: A liturgical hymn consisting of three couplets in typical Hebrew balance:
flesh/spirit (contrast), seen/proclaimed (complementary), world/glory (contrast). Some
predominantly Western MSS read “which” (o`) instead of “who” (o`j), harmonizing the
gender of the pronoun with that of the preceding musth,rion; many later (8/9th cent. on),
mainly Byzantine MSS read “God”, possibly for theological reasons.
4:14: “Prophetic word” (dia. profhtei,aj), cf. 1:18, may mean the utterance
of the Christian prophet designating the candidate, or a prayer of blessing accompanying the
rite. The imposition of hands (evpiqe,sewj tw/n ceirw/n) was used in the OT to
signify the transmission of authority from Moses to Joshua (Num 27:18-23; Dt 34:9). The
early Christian community used it as a symbol of installation into an office: the Seven (Acts
6:6) and Paul and Barnabas (Acts 13:3). The mention of the “presbyterate”
(presbuteri,ou) means that each member of the college of presbyters imposed hands
(cf. 2 Tim 1:6, where Paul alone imposes hands, without excluding the participation of
others in the rite, however).
5:1-16: The subject of widows is discussed. The first responsibility for their care
belongs to the family circle, not to the Christian community as such (vv.3-4.16). The widow
left without the aid of relatives may benefit the community by her prayer, and the
community should consider her material sustenance its responsibility (vv.5-8). Widows who
wish to work directly for the church should not be accepted unless they are well beyond the
probability of marriage, i.e., sixty years of age, married only once, and with the reputation
for good works (vv.9-10). Younger widows are apt to be troublesome and should be
encouraged to remarry (vv.11-15).
5:17-25: The function of presbyters is not exactly the same as that of the episkopos
(3:1); in fact, the relation of the two at the time of this letter is obscure. The Pastorals seem
to reflect a transitional stage that developed in many regions of the Church into the
monarchical episcopate of the second and third centuries. The presbyter possesses the task
of preaching and teaching, subjecting them to adverse criticism.
6:1-2: Compare the tables for household duties in Col 3:18–4:1. Domestic
relationships derive new meaning from the Christian faith.
6:4-5: The second vice catalogue, cf. 1:9-10.
276
As in 1 Tim 3:11; 2 Tim 3:3; Ti 2:3.
99
6:6: Rather obscure verse: the important gain of religion is spiritual, but there is material
gain, too.
6:11: “oh, Man of God” (w= a;nqrwpe qeou/) is a title applied to Moses and
the prophets (Dt 33:1; 1Sam 2:27; 1Kgs 12:22; 13:1; etc.).
6:20-21: The opponents are not Judaizers as in Gal but false teachers stressing
“gnosis”, a specific reference to Gnosticism (“so-called knowledge” yeudwnu,mou
gnw,sewj; see also 1:4; Ti 3:9)277, the great rival and enemy of the Church for two
centuries and more. Characteristic of the various gnostic systems of speculation was an
elaborate mythology of innumerable superhuman intermediaries, on a descending scale
(“genealogies”) between God and the world. Thus would be explained the emphasis upon
Christ’s being the one mediator (2:5). Although fully developed Gnosticism belonged to the
second and later centuries, there are signs that incipient forms of it belonged to Paul’s own
period.
XVI. The Letter to Titus, 66 A.D. (from Rome, 2st captivity)
Titus: After Timothy, Titus was one of the most favored disciples of Paul 278. No
mention, though, in Acts. A Greek by birth (Gal 2:3), probably a native of Antioch. He
accompanied the Apostle and Barnabas to the Council of Jerusalem (Acts 15:1ff; Gal 2:1),
and it was decided that Titus and other Gentile converts need to submit to circumcision and
the Jewish ceremonial law. On the third missionary journey, he was with Paul at Ephesus,
and was thence dispatched to Corinth about a year before the writing of 2 Cor to arrange for
the collection of alms for the poor in Jerusalem (2 Cor 8:6.10; 12:18). A little later he was
again Paul's envoy to Corinth (2 Cor 2:12f; 7:6f). The two met in Macedonia, Titus sent to
Corinth with 2 Cor (cf. 2 Cor 8:6.16f).
To him was entrusted by Paul the organization of the Church of Crete, of which he was
made the bishop (Ti 1:5). Afterwards summoned to Nicopolis in Epirus (Ti 3:12), then sent
on a mission to Dalmatia (2 Tim 4:10). According to tradition he returned to his bishopric in
Crete, died at the age of ninety-four. Buried at Gortyna, some centuries later his head
carried away to Venice, where it is now preserved as a relic in St. Mark's Basilica. Older
than Timothy, stronger personality, more capable worker, vigorous and efficient
administrator, tactful and prudent in the exercise of his strength and authority, held in high
regard by Paul, unreserved confidence placed in him.
Lastly, Tim and Ti are persons willing to take on various offices that often consisted in
representing Paul in circumstances far from easy.
Occasion, Date, Place of Composition: The warmer personal tone of 2 Tim is
replaced by emphasis on Church office and on living in the society of the day, in which
deceivers and heretics abound. The reasons which prompted the writing of Ti were much the
same as those that occasioned 1/2 Tim: lazy, superstitious, unreliable population, false
teachers, mischief of Judaizers.
Sometimes labeled as “Proto-Gnosticism”.
Paul addresses him as his "beloved son" (Ti 1:4), from which it is argued that the Apostle very
likely had converted and baptized him.
277
278
100
It is hard to fit in Paul’s visit to Crete (Ti 1:5) before his first Roman imprisonment. The
date remains unsure: probably written around 65 A.D., perhaps shortly after 1 Tim in Rome.
Structure:
Introduction, 1:1-4
A. First Part, 1:5-16 (Sacred Orders)
B. Second Part, 2:1-15 (faithful teaching)
C. Third Part, 3:1-11 (obedience to authority, love, good works)
Conclusion, 3:12-15
1:5-9: This instruction on the selection and appointment of presbyters, substantially
identical with that in 1 Tim 3:1-7 on a bishop, was aimed at strengthening the authority of
Titus by apostolic mandate. The terms episkopos279 and presbyteros refer to the same
persons. Deacons are not mentioned in Ti.
1:10-16: This criticism seems to aim at certain Jewish Christians busying themselves
with superfluous speculations over OT personages as well as insisting on Jewish ritual
purity regulations.
1:12: Quoted from EPIMERIDES, a Cretan poet of the sixth century B.C.
2:1-10: One of Titus’ main tasks in Crete is to become acquainted with the character
of the Cretans and thereby learn to cope with its deficiencies; Paul’s counsel includes
various societal classes: older men and women, younger women and men, and slaves.
2:13: The use of a single article in Greek strongly suggests an epexegetical, i.e.,
explanatory sense: “The blessed hope, the appearance”.
3:1: avrcai/j evxousi,aij: some commentators see a reference to the
angelic hierarchy. Good citizenship is encouraged.
3:3: Vice catalogue on teaching ministry.
Exegesis of Ti 3:8-11 (Avoidance of vain contentions):
3:8: Paul concludes the exhortation of vv.3-7 by inculcating the performance of
good works, on which he is ever insisting throughout the Pastoral Epistles. "Faithful is the
word", i.e., worthy of belief, referring to the verses just preceding; truths to be preached so
that the faith of Titus' hearers may be living and fruitful in good works.
3:9: Titus is to avoid the foolish questions and quarrels of the heretics and the
heretics themselves. Controversy and argument was very popular in certain Jewish circles;
debate may not be heterodox exactly (cf. 1:10-16), but at best it is a waste of time and
energy which can be better employed in doing the job a pastor of souls is supposed to do.
3:10: "As for a man who is factious" (ai`retiko,j, haereticus): lit. a heretic.
This is the only time this word appears in the NT; it did not yet have the technical negative
meaning of someone who denies a revealed truth; it simply meant someone who followed
his own erroneous ideas, even if that did not involve a direct attack on the Church. Here it
refers to those false teachers who rejected Titus' teaching, even if they did not do so in any
279
Lit. “someone having a vision from on high”.
101
formal or organized way. If they do not listen to fraternal correction (cf. Mt 18:15-17), they
must be treated as estranged from the Church280.
3:11: Paul now explains the reason why the pertinacious heretic is to be avoided.
Such a one is perverted, i.e., beyond hope of repair, because he has separated himself from
the foundation which is faith; he is condemned by his own judgment
(auvtokata,kritoj), because it is his persistence in error that has put him out of the
Church.
XVII. The Second Letter to Timothy, 67 A.D. (from Rome, 2st captivity)
2 Tim written during the apostle’s second captivity in Rome, shortly before his death in
66/67 A.D., the tone being more personal than 1 Tim.
2 Tim 1:3: In mentioning his ancestors (pro,gonoj) he underpins the continuity of
Judaism and Christianity (cf. Rom 9:3-5; Phil 3:4-6).
1:6: Timothy is to rekindle the gift of his ordination, diV h]n aivti,an
avnamimnh,|skw se avnazwpurei/n to. ca,risma tou/ qeou/( o[
evstin evn soi. dia. th/j evpiqe,sewj tw/n ceirw/n mou, the
conferral of the ecclesiastical office in the holy orders.
1:16-18: Onesiphorus seems to have died before this letter was written281. His family is
mentioned twice (cf. 4:19) though it was Onesiphorus himself who was helpful to Paul in
prison and rendered much service to the community of Ephesus. Because the apostle
complains of abandonment by all in Asia during his second imprisonment and trial, the
assistance of Onesiphorus seems to have been given to Paul during his first Roman captivity
(A.D. 61-63).
2:11b-12a: Poetic lines, probably an early Christian hymn allusive of baptism as dying
with Christ.
2:19: The first quotation is from Nm 16:5; the other quotation is from some unidentified
Jewish writing.
3:2-4: Vice catalogue for an eschatological setting.
3:8: Jannes and Jambres, Pharaoh’s magicians of Egypt (Exo 7:11-12.22), discredited
the truth in Moses’ time. Exodus does not name the magicians, but the two names are
widely found in much later Jewish, Christian, and even pagan writings (legendary origin?).
3:16: In this classic reference to inspiration (qeo,pneustoj), God is its principal
author, with the writer as the human collaborator. Thus the Scriptures are the word of God
in human language (cf. 2Pt 1:20f).
4:1-8 (Last appeal to Timothy): Now that the end is drawing near, the aged Apostle,
feeling his days are numbered and his work is done, adjures Timothy incessantly to continue
the labors of the ministry and to bear up under its trials, being prepared for the onslaughts of
future false teachers. As for Paul himself, he is about to pour out his blood as a sacrifice for
280
The Church does not condemn them; it is they who have gone astray and the Church simply states
her position to show the faithful where error lies: "with watchfulness they [the bishops] ward off
whatever errors threaten their flock." VATICAN II, Lumen Gentium 25.
281
If Onesiphorus was dead, then this is the earliest prayer for a deceased in Christian literature.
102
the cause; but he is ready and his reward is waiting for him. The just Judge will never fail
him, nor anyone else who has lived and labored for Christ.
4:1: Paul in 4:1-4 solemnly charges Timothy so much the more to preach the word
of God as the wicked stray farther from the truth. The word "coming/appearance"
(evpifa,neian) and "Kingdom" (basilei,an) are accusatives of adjuration in Greek
and form part of the Apostle's oath. The gravity of the obligation incumbent on Timothy can
be gauged from this solemn adjuration.
4:2: "The word" (to,n lo,gon), i.e., the Gospel message282; "in doctrine"
(didach,): preaching without doctrine is of little avail, since it lacks substance and leaves
rebuke and exhortation without a reason and basis: "preach, be instant in season and out of
season, reprove, entreat, rebuke in all patience and doctrine"283.
4:3-4: The reason is now given why Timothy must redouble his zeal; for during his
own lifetime there will be persons who, following their own lusts and craving for novelties,
will reject sound doctrine; they will repudiate and turn away from the dogmas of the
Church, and instead will seek out teachers whose doctrines and myths (mu/qoj284) appeal
to the passions and lower appetites.
4:5: In the face of difficulties just described, Timothy is to be prudent (nh/fe) and
well poised in all things, to endure hardship and misfortunes (kakopa,qhson), to preach
the Gospel285, and faithfully to fulfill all his duties as a minister of Christ
(plhrofo,rhson diakoni,an).
4:6: The secret of the Apostle's anxiety about Timothy's preparedness, zeal,
readiness to suffer, etc., is now revealed; the old champion of the Gospel is going to leave
him very soon, he is looking on his open grave. "Being poured out in sacrifice"
(spe,ndomai), i.e., to offer a libation, metaphorically and passive in the NT for
martyrdom, having one's life blood shed; Paul is ready to shed his blood as a sacrifice to
God, as the drink-offering of wine used to be poured out as a libation to God in certain of
the ancient Jewish sacrifices, cf. Num 15:1-10. He regards his death as an act of worship (cf.
Exo 29:38-40; Phil 2:17). Ana,lusij "dissolution, departure"286, another image to signify
the imminence of his death, cf. 2Macc 9:1; Lk 12:36 (“return from wedding feast”); Phil
1:23 (“depart to be with Christ”).
4:7f: The metaphors are here drawn from the arena and the racecourse. Like a
valiant athlete, the Apostle has fought the good fight (avgw,noj) in defense of the faith
(cf. 1 Tim 6:12); like a faithful runner in the race (dro,moj), he has completed the course,
in fulfillment of Jesus’ prophecy at the time of his conversion: “I will show him what he
will have to suffer for my name” (Acts 9:16); he has fulfilled all his duties and preserved the
deposit of faith (pi,stij) entrusted to him. Now he is ready for the crown of justice
282
Cf. Gal 6:6; Col 4:3.
Remarkable accumulation of finite verbs, reinforcing the urgency of the charge.
284
In the NT always in the negative sense: (i) as opposed to historical fact: legend, fable (2 Pt 1:16);
(ii) as opposed to truth: fiction, myth (2 Tim 4:4).
285
Cf. Acts 21:8; Eph 4:11.
286
(i) active: a breaking up [like a tent during Exodus], disintegration, destruction; (ii) passive,
euphemistically, of departure from live in death.
283
103
(dikaiosu,nhj ste,fanoj), the reward with which the Lord will recompense him287.
He merits it, it is due the Apostle in justice. "In that day", i.e., on the day of the Last
Judgment.
4:10: Some mss read “Gaul” or “Gallia” instead of “Galatia”.
4:21: Western tradition identified this Linus (Li,noj) with the successor of Peter
as bishop of Rome, and Claudia (Klaudi,a) as the mother of Linus288.
XVIII. The Letter to the Hebrews, 67 A.D. (from Rome, 2st captivity)
THOMAS AQUINAS: “The Apostle wrote this epistle against the errors of some who,
having converted from Judaism to the faith of Christ, wanted to keep the legal observances
along with the Gospel, as if the grace of Christ did not suffice unto salvation.”289
The author calls this work a “message of encouragement” (13:22 lo,goj th/j
paraklh,sewj), a designation that is given to a synagogue sermon (cf. Acts 13:15). The
content of Hb makes it one of the most imposing books in the NT, falling between a letter
and a written address or sermon (cf. 13:22). Its structure and presentation are reminiscent of
a short theological treatise290. The main purpose is to show the superiority of Christianity
over the Old Covenant; the New Law is the perfection, the fulfillment, of the Old Law,
which it supersedes; yet its style is not polemical. It focuses on the idea that Christ's
priesthood and sacrifice are superior to those of the Levitical priesthood. The author uses
this teaching as a basis for exhorting his readers to persevere in the faith: this pastoral
purpose is also the primordial aim to the epistle. The writer prudently combines warm
encouragement with straight talk.
Authorship and Canonicity: Very vexing question from the beginning: in fact,
Heb, James, 2 Pt and Jude were known as the Antilegomena, or “books spoken against”. In
the East, until Arius, fourth century, regarded as Pauline, though the form given to it by
some disciple of his291. In the West known very early292, but until after the middle of cent.
IV the Latin Fathers were disinclined to accept it as an authentic Epistle of Paul's.
Main reasons for doubts: (i) absence of Paul's name and the customary greeting at the
beginning; (ii) remarkable differences in the language and style293; (iii) writer in several
places (2:3; 13:7) seems to speak as if he were not an Apostle, but second generation of
287
Here we have an explicit proof that the just, by means of good works performed in the state of
grace, can merit eternal life de condigno. And yet it remains true that the joys of heaven are a
gratuitous gift; for God from eternity has predestined the just to life eternal, and in time He
gratuitously confers on them the grace by which they work out their salvation and merit eternal
rewards, cf. CONC. TRID., sess. VI, can. 32.
288
See the Apostolic Constitution, fourth century.
289
First sentence of his Commentary on Hebrews 1:1.
290
Scholars have described it as a "literary letter".
291
Many writers regarded the letter as having been written by Paul himself, ex.gr. JOHN
CHRYSOSTOM.
292
Frequently quoted and referred to by CLEMENT OF ROME in his letter to the Corinthians (95 A.D.),
and The Pastor of Hermas (Vis., II., 2; Sim., I, i. ff).
293
The Greek of the letter is in many ways the best in the NT.
104
Christians; (iv) subject-matter different in many respects from the subjects treated in other
Pauline letters; (v) alternation of doctrinal and moral teaching; (vi) different manner of
citing the OT.
Eastern reception: ORIGEN said the thoughts and ideas are Paul's, but the form was
furnished by someone else294 (editor295). CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA said: Paul wrote Hb in
Hebrew and Luke translated it into Greek, style similar to Acts, Paul's name omitted so as
not to antagonize the Jews who were prejudiced against him 296. The authority of the
presbyter PANTAENUS is cited to the same effect297. Likewise DENIS OF ALEXANDRIA,
ALEXANDER OF ALEXANDRIA, St. ATHANASIUS, and all the other Fathers and ecclesiastical
writers of the churches of Alexandria, Antioch, Palestine, and Cappadocia, affirm that Paul
authored Hb.
In the West the case was different: Regarded with suspicion until cent. IV. It appears
that HIPPOLYTUS, IRENAEUS, and the Roman presbyter CAIUS did not recognize it as
Pauline298. Not found in the Muratorian Canon. St. CYPRIAN said that Paul wrote only to
seven Churches, excluding Hb299. TERTULLIAN calls it the work of Barnabas (not altogether
improbable since he belonged to the priestly tribe of Levi). "AMBROSIASTER", the
anonymous author of the first complete Latin commentary on Paul, does not include Hb. By
the end of the fourth century, it was regarded as Pauline in the West (other suggested
authors include Apollos, Prisc(ill)a or Aquila). JEROME300 and AUGUSTINE301 admit it with
some hesitation; the Council of Carthage (397 A.D.) spoke of "the thirteen epistles of Paul,
and one by the same to the Hebrews". Cited as Pauline by HILARY, AMBROSE, RUFINUS,
INNOCENT I in his Catalogue of Canonical Scriptures (401 A.D.), the Fifth Council of
Carthage, and many others.
In brief, one can say that from the end of the fourth century until the rise of
Protestantism Hb was accepted as Pauline by all Churches and ecclesiastical writers both in
the East and in the West302. Even the Reformers did not generally reject it until the
nineteenth century. Most twentieth century exegetes attribute Hb to another author303.
Thomas Aquinas: Acknowledges traditions that mention Luke, Barnabas, Clement I
as authors. Defends Paul’s paternity saying that his name is not mentioned in the letter
because he was not the apostle of the Jews but of the gentiles; also, his name was odious to
294
"Who really wrote the letter, God knows. The statement of some of our predecessors is that
Clement, Bishop of the Romans, wrote the epistle; others say that Luke, the author of the Gospel and
the Acts, wrote it." Hist. Eccl., VI, xxv, 11-14.
295
Keeping in mind JOHN VAN SETERS’ sweeping criticism concerning biblical editors: “The
misunderstanding of ancient historiography and the displacement of the author/historian by the
notion of editor or redactor is one of the fundamental errors of redaction criticism.” The Edited
Bible. The Curious History of the “Editor” in Biblical Criticism, Winona Lake 2006, p. 112.
296
Cf. EUSEBIUS, Hist. Eccl., VI, xiv, 2-4; Strom., vi, 8.
297
Cf. Hist. Eccl., VI, xiv.
298
Cf. Hist. Eccl., VI, xx.
299
Cf. De exhort. mart., XI.
300
Cf. Comm. in Matt., xxvi. 8; in Isa., vi., 2, 9; Ep. cxxix., 3, etc.
301
Cf. De peccat. merit. et remiss., i, 27.
302
Some Renaissance theologians, among them ERASMUS and CAJETAN, also held the view that Paul
was not the author of Hb.
303
See also the missing proper name in Catholic Lectionaries after VATICAN II: "A Reading from the
letter to the Hebrews".
105
the Jews who would have rejected a letter from him. His elegant style can be explained by
the fact that Paul wrote Heb in his native Hebrew and Luke translated it into Greek304.
For Catholics the question is a closed one, inasmuch as we must hold that Hb is not
only divinely inspired, but that it is Pauline in origin, as containing the doctrine and teaching
of Paul. We are not obliged to believe that he supplied the exact language and style in which
the doctrine is expressed; although on this point we must be prepared to accept further
possible pronouncement by the Church305.
Of course, the divine inspiration or canonicity of a letter or passage of Sacred
Scripture does not require that it should have been actually written by the Apostle306. But if
we keep in mind the external evidence so far adduced in favor of Paul's authorship, and
consider some of the internal facts which point in the same direction, we shall be able to see
the entire reasonableness of the position of the Catholic Church. For in spite of differences
of style and language, Paul's teaching is everywhere:
(1) The same doctrine about Christ: Glory and image of the Eternal Father (Hb 1:3 ||
Col 1:15; Phil 2:7; Rom 8:34); seated at the right hand of God (Hb 1:3 || Col 1:17); superior
to the angels (Hb 1:5f || Eph 1:21); received a name above all names (Hb 1:4 || Phil 2:9); He
humbled Himself to redeem us (Hb 2:14f || Phil 2:8); shed His blood for our sakes (Hb
9:14.18 || Rom 5:9); we are His brethren (Hb 2:11 || Rom 8:17); He is the source of all
graces (Hb 4:16 || Rom 1:5ff).
(2) The same teaching about the Old Law: Given trough angels (Hb 2:2 || Gal 3:19);
law of fear and bondage (Hb 2:15; 12:18-21 || Gal 5:1; Rom 8:15); only a shadow of things
to come, therefore impotent to justify men (Hb 8:5; 9:1ff || Col 2:17; Rom 3:21; 8:2-4);
justification only through faith in Christ (Hb 10:38; 11:6; 12:2 || Rom 1:17; 3:28).
(3) Parenesis: Live in peace with all (Hb 12:14 || Rom 12:8); we must practice
hospitality (Hb 13:2 || Rom 12:13); exercise patience (Hb 6:12; 10:36 || Rom 5:3f); give
ourselves to prayer (Hb 4:16 || Eph 6:18), etc.
(4) Style307: Here as in other Pauline letters there are many digressions from the
main arguments. Also in the texts of Scripture cited308 and in the manner in which they are
used, there are many striking resemblances with the remaining letters. As a final argument
one might observe that Hb closes with the Apostle's usual salutations and good wishes, and
that the author speaks intimately of his beloved disciple Timothy, 13:23.
Time and Place of Composition: It must have been written before 70 A.D., for it
clearly assumes that the Temple was still standing and that the priests were still carrying out
the Jewish sacrificial ritual in all its completeness and splendor (8:4; 9:6-9.13; 10:1ff;
13:10). It must have antedated even the Jewish war in 67 A.D., since it contains no mention
of so great an event. If it was written to the Jewish Christians in Palestine, the persecution
304
Cf. Prologue to his commentary (reportatio, notes taken by students) on the epistle, written
around 1265 in Rome.
305
Cf. Decrees of the PONTIFICAL BIBLICAL COMMISSION, June 24, 1914; cf. Dz-Sch 2178.
306
Hb was solemnly pronounced to be canonical by the Councils of Florence (1442) and Trent
(Session IV, 1546).
307
The most perfect in the NT; all authorities acknowledged its purity and elegance. This is why the
best critics say that the thoughts and ideas are Paul's, but the language and style were supplied by
someone else.
308
All OT quotations are from the Septuagint.
106
including the death of James the Less, bishop of Jerusalem in 62 A.D., would explain well
the trials of the faithful occasioning the letter around 63 A.D.309. Rome is the traditional
place of origin. The inscription at the end of the Codex Alexandrinus reads "from Rome"310.
Occasion and Readers, epistolary themes: The author saw the addressees in
danger of apostasy from their Christian faith due not so much to any persecution from
outsiders but to a weariness with the demands of Christian life and a growing indifference to
their calling. Several factors had contributed to that state of mind:
1. the martyrdom of the Jerusalem bishop, the apostle James the Less, 62 A.D.;
2. the fanatic Jewish nationalism instigating to an all-out war against Rome;
3. the fascinating presence of the world’s most beautiful temple with its splendid
rituals.
Thus, the epistle endeavours to explain the superior quality of the New Covenant. Written to
Christian converts (not recent) from Judaism in Palestine (Jerusalem), people well known to
the author, who were suffering for their new faith, consequently tempted to fall back. These
Christians were familiar with the OT and with standard Jewish interpretation, well-versed in
the terminology connected with Temple rites. The author's purpose, therefore, is to hearten
and console his readers, warning them against lapsing into apostasy. The author’s main
theme, the priesthood and sacrifice of Jesus (chs.3-10), is not developed for its own sake but
as a means of restoring their lost fervor and strengthening them in their faith. Another
important theme of the letter is that of the pilgrimage of the people of God to the heavenly
Jerusalem, intimately connected with that of Jesus’ ministry in the heavenly sanctuary.
The demise of the OT priesthood gives rise to Jewish Mysticism: The destruction of the
Jerusalem Temple in 70 A.D., continuous exile and ongoing persecution meant the eventual
termination of the traditional aaronic priesthood. Hopes and yearnings were transferred from
the earthly Temple to the cherubic chariot (merkavah, Eze 1:4-26) and seven heavenly
sanctuaries (heikalot), where the lost priestly venue on earth continued and transitioned into
the eternal divine service performed by the angels. The above metamorphosis is embedded
in the mystical liturgy of the Merkavah tradition, as well as the vast kabbalistic-hasidic
library, building a spiritual passage from the past to the future311.
309
Hb 1:3-13 appears as a quotation in ch. 36,2-5 of CLEMENT OF ROME's letter to the Corinthians,
which was written around 95 A.D. If Hb was already quite widely known by that date, then it could
not have been written later than the start of the 90s.
310
See also the greetings from Italy, Hb 13:24.
311
Cf. R. ELIOR, Jewish Mysticism, Portland 2007.
107
Structure:
Introduction, 1:1-3: Theme: Superiority of the NT
Doctrinal Part, 1:4–10:18: New Dispensation superior to the Old
a. Christ superior to the Angels, 1:4–2:18
b. Christ superior to Moses, 3:1–4:13
c. Christ's priesthood superior to Aaron, 4:14–10:18
i. Superior dignity of Christ as Divine High Priest, 4:14–7:28
ii. Superior dignity of heavenly Sanctuary, 8:1-5
iii. Superior dignity of the Gospel, 8:6-13
iv. Superior dignity of Christ as the Victim, 9:1–10:18
Moral Part, 10:19–13:17: Exhortations
a. Perseverance in faith, 10:19–12:29
i. Dreadful consequences of apostasy, 10:19-31
ii. Beautiful constancy in faith, 10:32-39
iii. Faith of the ancient Patriarchs, 11:1-40
iv. Imitation of these heroes, 12:1-13
v. Peace, holiness, vigilance, 12:14-29
vi. Charity, chastity, flee covetousness, 13:1-6
vii. Obedience to the teaching of the prelates, 13:7-17
b. Practice of virtues, 13:1-17
Conclusion, 13:18-25
Interpretation of the OT: The sacred author applies rabbinical rules of biblical
interpretation. This type of exegesis is called dérash in Hebrew312. It is to be found in many
Jewish writings, translations, commentaries, regulations related to the Scriptures 313. It is
essentially a literary exegesis using analogies, reflections, parallels, moving from the
general to the particular, etc., towards a search for a religious meaning in application to new
situations ("actualization") which went beyond the immediate or obvious meaning314. The
intellectual background, then, of the writer of Hb, is that of a rabbi well-versed in dérashic
interpretation, whereas its literary form is appropriate to a Hellenist Jew of Alexandrian
background315. The dérash of Hb, however, parts company with rabbinical dérash316 on one
312
Deriving from the verb darásh (frd) meaning "to seek", "to interpret".
See particularly the Targumim, the Midrashim, the Mishnah, and the Talmud.
314
For instance, Hb 1:5-14 quotes some Psalms (cf. 97:7; 102:26; 104:4), read as words of God the
Father addressed to His Son, even though in their original context they were addressed to God in
praise of His omnipotence. Thus, the author has "actualized" the psalm by interpreting it as referring
to Christ. Another example is Ps 40:7 and 95:8, applied to the situation of Christians or to the
sacrifice of the Cross.
315
Well compatible with St. Paul as author of the epistle.
316
Rabbinical exegesis distinguishes four levels of scriptural meanings:
1. Péshat = literal sense
2. Rémez = allegorical sense
3. Dérash = applied/actualized sense
313
108
fundamental point: it is centered on Christ, the climax of the Torah317. Hence, in Hb the OT
is not quoted to prove the excellence and superiority of Jesus Christ; rather, Jesus throws
light on and enables us to understand what the Old Dispensation is all about.
Judaism and Christianity: In a non-polemical spirit and with serenity the sacred
author shows that the objective superiority of Christianity is the key factor in salvation
history. The theological thrust is not designed to discredit Judaism but rather to assign it its
proper place as a preparatory stage to God's definitive revelation in His Son, since the
Mosaic Law is incapable of saving mankind. Hb proclaims the impermanence and
ineptitude of the Torah for the sake of the law of grace and freedom 318, without affecting the
unity, the continuum of the two Testaments319. It does this mainly by the use of OT
typology320. Christianity is therefore the culmination of the Jewish religion.
Faith and Revelation: Hb is a "word of exhortation" (Hb 13:22) to steadfastness in
the faith. Hb 11:1 offers a rich and concise definition of faith321. Faith is anchored in Christ
Himself, who is the fulfillment of God's promises in the OT, cf. Hb 12:2. In the world to
come faith will be transformed into glory, hence its close connection with hope. Faith in
Christ is faith in Revelation, cf. Hb 1:1f. Therefore, we should believe also in His teaching
and precepts.
Christology: Predominant, rich, simple, direct. Paul explores the subject of
universal redemption in Christ the mediator through the cross. He is simultaneously Victim
and Priest. He is pre-existent as the Word, as the Creator in consubstantial equality to His
Father, Hb 1:1-3. The letter focuses on Christ's priesthood by being true God and true man,
capable of blotting out men's sins by His unrepeatable because supreme sacrifice. He
inaugurates a non-genealogical, a vocational priesthood. The effectiveness and lastingness
of His intercession on our behalf is founded upon the Lord's self-abasement and
glorification. Four main titles sum up Paul's Christology in Hb: Son, Messiah, Jesus and
Lord; elsewhere He is also Sanctifier, Heir, Mediator, Shepherd and Apostle322.
Eschatology: Imbues the entire letter. It provides the key to interpreting the
relationship between the provisional OT and the definitive NT. Christ, the new Moses, will
lead His people through a new Exodus into the eventual Fatherland. Paul strongly advises
the readers to stay faithful to the last moment of our lives, and so enter into eternal rest. This
4. Sód = mystical/infused sense
While Jewish exegesis confined itself to explaining obscure passages by appealing to Moses'
authority.
318
Cf. the resolutions reached during the Council of Jerusalem (Acts 15).
319
Cf. VATICAN II, Dei Verbum 16; The Jewish People and Their Sacred Scriptures in the Christian
Bible, Pontifical Biblical Commission 2001; Pope Benedict XVI’s Post-Synodal Apostolic
Exhortation Verbum Domini 2010.
320
I.e., all key figures in the Old Covenant look forward to Christ; Melchizedek and Moses are,
respectively, "types" of the Messiah and High Priest of the New Law, Jesus Christ.
321
THOMAS AQUINAS defines faith as "that habit of mind whereby we attain to an initial grasp of
eternal life, leading the understanding to assent to things unseen", S.Th., II, q. 4, a. 1; Faith as an act
is dealt with particularly in Rom 4 (fidelity of Abraham to God's promises, 4:18).
322
This being the only place in the NT where He is described as Apostle.
317
109
focus on the future life presents the Christian existence as a journey323 toward the fullness of
the post-parousiac Kingdom, the New City, the heavenly Sanctuary, whose Architect is God
and whose Head is Christ in the final re-creation.
Exegesis of Hb 1:1-4 (Exordium)324: The rhetorical artistry of this prologue surpasses
that of any other portion of the NT. With no personal salutations the author plunges at once
into the theme, namely, the excellence of the New Covenant. The revelation of the OT was
fragmentary and incomplete, having been given at widely separated times, through a great
variety of means and agents. The NT is complete and final in God's Son. This passage
stands with the Prologue of the Fourth Gospel and the Christ Hymn in Phil 2:6-11 and Col
1:15-20 as the high points of the NT Christology.
1:1: The initial adjectives are not simply synonyms; the first (polumerw/j)
suggests that God's speech of old was disjointed, coming in multiple segments, bit by bit
(me,roj meaning “piece, part”)325. The second (polutro,pwj) suggests the formal
diversity of God's word (tro,poj meaning “way, kind, manner, figure, character”)326.
God revealed Himself and His will gradually, according to the increasing capacity and
fitness of the human race to receive His unveiling327. By the use of Qeo,j the author
professes his belief in the divine origin of the OT328.
1:2: By contrast, the Gospel revelation has been made through one person and in one
way only, through Christ. The superiority and finality of the new revelation are here set over
against the fragmentariness and incompleteness of the previous revelations329. "In these last
days" (evsca,tou tw/n h`merw/n), i.e., the Messianic era, called also "the fullness
of times" (1 Cor 10:11; Gal 4:4; 2 Tim 3:1), because in it God has given His complete
revelation to which nothing shall be added in this world330. "In a Son" (note the absence of
the definite article331: evn ui`w|/), i.e., in one who, unlike the Prophets, had the very
nature of God Himself, and who consequently is the natural "heir of all things", "appointed"
323
See the frequent emphasis on the virtues of faith and hope, virtues necessary to pilgrims.
Cf. HOECK-MANHARDT, Hebrews.
325
I.e., by many partial revelations.
326
By a great variety of means and methods of communication.
327
Speaking first to Adam, then to Noe, then to a great array of succeeding messengers: Abraham,
Isaac, Jacob, Moses, David, and all the prophets; to patriarchs, legislators, prophets, historians, seers;
by words, dreams, visions, symbolic actions, etc.
328
VATICAN I recalled: "God, the origin and end of all things, can be known with certainty by the
natural light of human reason from the things that He created, [...] it was, nevertheless, the good
pleasure of His wisdom and goodness to reveal Himself and the eternal decrees of His will to the
human race in another and supernatural way." Dei Filius, ch. 2.
329
St. JOHN OF THE CROSS comments on this passage: "Herein the Apostle declares that God has
become, as it were, dumb, and has no more to say, since that which He spoke before, in part, to the
prophets, He has now spoken altogether in Him, giving us the All, which is His Son. And so he who
would now enquire of God, or seek any vision or revelation, would not only be acting foolishly, but
would be committing an offense against God, by not setting his eyes altogether upon Christ, and
seeking no new thing or aught beside." Ascent of Mount Carmel, book 2, ch. 2.
330
Though it will be more and more unfolded and explained by the teaching of the Church as time
goes on and as necessity requires.
331
A similar anarthrous use of ui`o,j is found in Hb 1:5; 3:6; 5:8; 7:28.
324
110
according to His human nature332. "By whom He also made the world333": The Son is
considered here in His incommunicable divine nature, equal to the Father, having the same
power and operation334. Creation, like all the works of God ad extra, is common to all the
three Divine Persons; and hence the Son or the Holy Spirit is just as much the efficient
cause of creation as the Father is, Col 1:16335.
1:3: Verses 3-4 may be based upon a liturgical hymn. Having spoken in the
preceding verse of what the Father has done for and through the Son, the author in this verse
goes on to describe the Son in Himself, in His relation to the Father, and in His work and
triumph as man. Turning from the cosmological role of the preexistent Son to the
redemptive work of Jesus and his exaltation. Two figures are employed to portray the Son
as God:
First, He is "the brightness/effulgence/refulgence of His glory" (avpau,gasma
th/j do,xhj), i.e., the shining forth of the light336 and majesty of the Father, as the light
streams from the sun337, personified Wisdom (Wis 7:26).
Second, the Son is the "image/imprint of His substance" (carakth.r th/j
u`posta,sewj), i.e., the impress made on a seal by a stamp (sfragi,j) cut by a die,
which therefore exactly and permanently reproduces the original in all its perfection: the
Son has the identical nature, substance, perfections, and all else, that the Father has, except
the relationship of paternity by which He is distinguished from the Father, cf. Jn 14:9.
Thus, (a) the Son is con-substantial and co-eternal with the Father, and yet distinct
from Him; (b) the Son proceeds from the Father by nature, and not by the Father's free will;
(c) the Father in generating the Son does not suffer any change or imperfection.
"Bearing/carrying/upholding all things"338: the work of the Son as regards all
creation, as its sustainer and conserver (Col 1:17)339. Turning from the cosmological role of
the preexistent Son to his redemptive work of Jesus: "Having made a purgation of sins"
(kaqarismo,n340), having cleansed mankind from their sins, alluding to the Jewish
sacrifices or sin offerings of the Day of Atonement (Yom Kíppur), when the priest made a
purification of sins by sprinkling some of the blood of the victims upon the mercy-seat.
Christ's priestly work is adumbrated in this phrase.
332
Cf. Ps 8:8; Mt 11:27; 28:18; Jn 13:3; 17:2; 1 Cor 15:26; Eph 1:22; Phil 2:9.
Lit. "the ages" (tou.j aivw/naj) means all the things of time. The cosmos is the material
world considered in its order, beauty and harmony.
334
"He was with God as Wisdom; as Word He contemplated the Father and created the universe,
giving it substance, order and beauty." St. ATHANASIUS, Oratio contra gentes 46.
335
God somehow reveals Himself as maternal through the gentle, caring, nourishing and protecting
face of nature (cf. the Latin materia stemming from mater, mother).
336
"Light from light, true God from true God", Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed.
337
The same figure is used in the Book of Wisdom to depict Uncreated Wisdom (7:26).
338
The original hand of Codex B reads fanerw/n, revealing; this reading was subsequently
corrected by another scribe. A third scribe rebukes the earlier critic with the note: "Most ignorant
and wicked man, leave the original alone; do not change it."
339
"If the divine power ceased to operate, existence would cease, the being and substance of every
created thing would end." St. THOMAS AQUINAS, Commentary on Heb, 1,2.
340
For the text-critical discussion of variant readings, see METZGER, B.M., ed., Textual Commentary
on the Greek New Testament, Stuttgart 1971, p. 662.
333
111
"He sat down [took His seat] on the right hand"341, metaphor delineates Christ's
entry as man into peaceful and triumphant possession of His Kingdom and His session in
the highest place of honor next to the Divinity (Eph 1:20; Col 3:1). By His passion He not
only satisfied for our sins, but also merited for Himself as man the highest exaltation (Phil
2:8ff; Lk 24:26).
1:4: Christ's superiority to the angels, the first great argument in proof of the thesis
of excellence of the NT342. The preeminence of the medium/mediator proves the superiority
of the revelation. "Being made so much better", the Son having become in His Incarnation
as much superior to the angels as His name is greater than theirs343. "A more excellent
name", i.e., Son of God; "inherited", because it was due Him by reason of His origin, and
not by grace (St. THOMAS AQUINAS). He is not just messenger/legate (a;ggeloj), but Son.
In these verses, therefore, are indicated the three Messianic munera or ministries of
the Savior: Prophet (vv.1-2), Priest and King (v.3-4). In the other writings of the NT Jesus
takes His place at the right hand of the Father as one who triumphs, as a King and Judge; in
Hb it is preeminently in the capacity of Priest that He does so, and He there continues His
ministry of mediation (notice Christ’s “standing at God’s right hand” in the thick of the
battle of Stephen’s martyrdom, Acts 7:55).
1:5-14 (1:15-2:18): Jesus’ superiority to the angels is demonstrated by a series of seven
OT texts. One may see in the stages of His exaltation an order corresponding to that of
enthronement ceremonies in the ancient Near East, especially Egypt, namely:
(a) Elevation to divine status, vv.5-6
(b) Presentation to the angels and Proclamation of everlasting Lordship, vv.7-12
(c) Enthronement and Conferral of royal power, v.13.
The citations from the Psalms in vv.5.13 were traditionally used of Christ’s messianic
sonship (cf. Acts 13:33) through His resurrection and exaltation (cf. Acts 2:33-35); those in
vv.8.10-12 concern His divine kingship and His creative function.
1:6: Refers grammatically and terminologically to either (i) the Incarnation, (ii) the
Ascension, or (iii) the second coming of Christ; patristics divided, grammar inconclusive.
1:7: The central quotation here of Ps 104:4 (LXX) serves to contrast the angels with the
Son, as they worship Him. Paul quotes it according to the Septuagint translation, which is
quite different in meaning from the Hebrew (“You make the winds your messengers, and
flaming fire your ministers”).
1:8: The application of the name “God” (Ps 45:7) to the Son derives from the
preexistence mentioned in vv.2-3. The psalmist had already used it of the Hebrew king in
the court style of the original.
1:10-12: It is important for the author’s Christology that an OT passage addressed to
God is redirected to Christ.
341
Equivalent to saying "has the status of God".
To appreciate the force of the argument one must bear in mind that according to Jewish tradition
and belief the Torah, i.e., the Law, was given by God to Moses on Sinai through the hands of angels
(cf. Dt 33:2; Acts 7:53; Gal 3:19). They are, consequently, the great intermediaries of the OT.
343
According to St. CHRYSOSTOM and other Greek Fathers, "having become" (geno,menoj) here
means "having been shown to be"; the expression would thus refer to the glorification which Jesus
merited by His death (Jn 15:8; Rom 1:4; Phil 2:9), by which He was shown to be the true Son of
God.
342
112
2:1-4: Transition into exhortation, using an a fortiori argument344: the word announced
through angels (= Torah) is contrasted with the more powerful word that Christians
received.
2:5-18: The humanity and the suffering of Jesus do not constitute a valid reason for
relinquishing the Christian faith.
2:6-8: Ps 8 is also applied to Him in 1 Cor 15:27; Eph 1:22; 1Pt 3:22.
2:10: The reference to Christ as Leader (avrchgo,j) begins a leitmotif of the epistle
(cf. 4:9; 6:20).
2:12-13: Three OT texts quoted to prove our unity with the Son. Ps 22:23 is interpreted
so as to make Jesus the singer of this lament. The other two texts are from Isa 8:17f.
2:17: Christ the Highpriest. The first appearance of the central theme of Hb, Jesus the
great high priest of expiation.
3:1-6: Priesthood and Divine Authority; Jesus’ superiority to Moses: the author now
takes up the two qualities of Christ mentioned in 2:17, but in inverse order: faithfulness
(3:1-4.13) and mercy (4:14–5:10).
3:1: The designation “Apostle” for Jesus is a NT hapax (cf. Jn 13:16; 17:3), meaning
One sent as God’s final Word to us.
3:2: Christ compared to Moses because of the covenant mediation. But when the author
speaks of Jesus’ sacrifice, he considers the high priest Aaron (on the day of atonement) as
the OT antitype (9:6-15).
3:5-6: Moses’ faithfulness refers back to Num 12:7 on which this section is a midrashic
commentary. The reason why Jesus is superior to Moses: the latter was the faithful servant
(qhra,pwn) laboring in (e;n) the house founded by God; but Jesus is God’s Son
(ui`o,j), placed over (evpi,) the house. The majority of mss add “firm to the end”, but
these words are not found in the three earliest and best witnesses and are probably an
interpolation derived from v.14.
3:7–4:13: In the OT the Exodus had been invoked as a symbol of the return of Israel
from the Babylonian exile (Isa 42:9; 43:16-21; 51:9-11). In the NT the redemption was
similarly understood as a new exodus, both in the experience of Christ Himself (Lk 9:31)
and in that of His followers (1 Cor 10:1-4).
4:1-11: The symbol of rest is seen in deeper dimension. The promised land of rest was a
share in God’s own rest which He enjoyed after finishing His creative work (Gen 2:2). The
author attempts to read this meaning into Ps 95:7-11.
4:12-13: Meant as a continuation of the warning, for the word of God brings judgment
as well as salvation. Some would capitalize the WORD of God and see it as a personal title
of Jesus, comparable to that of Jn 1:1-18.
4:14–7:28, Jesus’ superiority to Aaron.
4:14-5:10: Priesthood and Human Misery (Jesus Christ, the High Priest345 of the New
Covenant): In these verses the Apostle introduces his third principal argument to prove the
superiority of the NT, namely the High-priesthood of Christ, occupying the rest of the
dogmatic part of Hb (4:14–10:18). He has proved so far that Christ is superior to the angels
(1:4–2:18) and to Moses (3:1–4:13).
344
345
As at 7:21-22; 9:13-14; 10:28-29; 12:25.
A designation used by PHILO for the Logos.
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4:14: In contrast with the Aaronic priests of the OT, who were accustomed once a
year (Yom Kippur) to pass behind the veil of the Temple into the Sancta Sanctorum, into the
presence of the Ark which was a symbol of the divine presence, Christ "has passed through
the heavens", that is, behind the curtain that separates this world from the unveiled presence
of God, and into the very presence of the Father Himself, establishing for us a direct
communication. Let us, therefore, hold fast to the faith we profess (readers were in danger
of losing their faith).
4:15: Priestly Compassion: Christ also retains close relationships with us and feels
for us, because He has lived our lives, experienced our sorrows and labors, and has allowed
Himself to be tried in all things, apart from sin 346. This indicates an acquaintance with the
tradition of Jesus’ temptations, not only at the beginning (Mk 1:13) but throughout His
public life (Lk 22:28). He knows how to sympathize with us (sumpaqh,sai), and since
He is sinless, He is able to powerfully plead for us.
4:16: As our High Priest is seated in the presence of the Father, and yet knows all
our needs, we can go with confidence to His throne of grace at all times.
5:1-4: Primary Characteristics of the High Priest: Every High Priest must, first of
all, have the same nature as those for whom he is to act as priest; secondly, he must be able
to have sympathy with human frailty; and thirdly, he must have received a divine call (vv.14). All these qualifications are found in Jesus Christ through His incarnation.
5:1: Chosen "from among men", he must have the same nature as men, and be
appointed by God on behalf of men "in the things that appertain to God", i.e., in all that has
to do with divine worship347, "to offer gifts and sacrifices for sins", indicating the principal
function of the High Priest348. The author is thinking principally of the Day of Atonement
rite (cf. 9:7; cf. Lev 16:1-34).
5:2: He "feels with moderation" (hapax legomenon metriopaqei,n)349, has
compassion with those who are ignorant and that err. The priest is inclined to put the
sinner's intentions in the best light (cf. Gal 6:1). With regard to the Jewish priest: compassed
with infirmity, moral as well as physical350. Mercy and compassion are singled out as
prominently priestly virtues.
5:3: All priests of the OT were under the necessity of offering sacrifices for their
own sins, as well as for those of the people (Lev 4:3-12; 16:6-11).
346
Unlike ourselves, who suffer from the effects of original sin, Jesus' temptations were all from
without, because there was always perfect harmony between His body and soul.
347
On the demand of outstanding holiness in a priest, see St. JOHN CHRYSOSTOM, De sacerdotio, II,
1-2.
348
"The office proper to a priest", St. THOMAS AQUINAS points out, "is to be a mediator between
God and the people, inasmuch as he bestows divine things on the people (he is called sacerdos,
which means 'a giver of sacred things', sacra dans), and again inasmuch as he offers the people's
prayer to God and in some way makes satisfaction to God for their sins." S.Th. III, q. 22, a. 1; cf.
also PIUS XII, Mediator Dei 1.
349
The NVg translation puts an emphasis on the fact that the priest shares in suffering for sin: aeque
condolere. This term was used by the Stoics to designate the golden mean between excess and defect
of passion. Here it means rather the ability to sympathize.
350
Cf. Canon Romanus: "Nobis quoque peccatoribus famulis tuis ...", cf. Wis 9:5f.
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5:4: No man should take upon himself the dignity of the priesthood, unless he has
received a divine call, such as was given to Aaron and his sons (Ex 28:1ff; 29:4ff; Num
3:10; 17:6.8, etc.).
5:5-10: Christ becomes High Priest. In verses 5-10 the sacred author applies to
Christ the qualifications of a true High Priest, beginning with the last mentioned, and
showing how He was called by God. Paul insists on this proof, because, according to His
human nature, Jesus was descended through King David from the tribe of Juda, and not like
the Jewish High Priests from the tribe of Levi.
5:5: Jesus' call is proved in the first place from the Messianic Ps 2:7. The words here
quoted are understood as addressed to Christ by the eternal Father at the moment when He
became incarnate (cf. Mic 5:1), for it was then that He became a Mediator between God and
man, and so was called to the priesthood351. Though Jesus was the eternal Son of the eternal
Father, He was begotten as man in time at the moment of the Incarnation. While on earth,
Christ performed priestly functions (ex.gr., blessing, healing, teaching, correcting, praying,
suffering, revealing, exorcising, mediating, consoling, resurrecting, instructing, nourishing),
culminating in His substitutionary holocaust at the Last Supper and on Calvary.
5:6: The priestly consecration at the Incarnation is expressly stated in Ps 109:4, the
full significance of which passage is developed in Hb 7:1ff. In Ps 109 the Messiah is
described as a King, as an eternal Priest, and as a mighty conqueror who will subject all
things to Himself.
"According to the order [ta,xij] of Melchizedek", a new system superseding the
obsolete Levitical priesthood, unable to secure moral perfection for men. The Messianic
priesthood would be independent of the line of Aaron, similar to the mysteriously sublime
ministry of the King-Priest Melchizedek (superior to Abraham, who gave him tithes). His
name means "King of Justice", and Salem, his city, means "Peace". Therefore, the heavenly
attributes of justice and peace are associated with Christ's priesthood, and these are the
qualities so often combined in prophetic pictures of the Messiah (Isa 9:7; 11; Ps 71:1-3.7;
84:10; Zech 9:9ff; Mal 4:2).
5:7: The reference in this verse is to the whole sacrifice of Christ, which began with
His agony in Gethsemani (Mk 14:35) and ended with His death on the cross, cf. Phil 2:5ff.
The writer stresses Jesus' share in our common experience of grief, suffering and death.
Christ was not saved from dying, which He did not pray for, but from the effects of death,
from the corruption and dominion of death. "Prayers and supplications", the plural tells us
that there were lots of these petitions, cf. Mt 26:39.
5:8: Though He was the Son of God, He submitted Himself as man entirely to the
Father's will in all things, and learned obedience in an experiential way by the trials and
tests which He endured352. Two different though not incompatible views of Christ’s sonship
coexist in Hb, one associating it with His exaltation (older view), the other with His
preexistence.
351
The ordination Basilica being the womb of the Virgin-Mother Mary in Nazareth; incidentally,
Paul never mentions the Mother of Christ by name, cf. Gal 4:4.
352
It was only experientially that Jesus could be said to learn anything, for in Him were all the
treasures of wisdom and knowledge (cf. Col 3:3). Hence it was only as His obedience was put to test
and trial by actual suffering that He is here described as learning obedience.
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5:9: Christ's sacrifice of obedience as man had a twofold effect: (i) for Himself it
brought to completion and perfection (telei,wsij, cf. 7:11) His experiential training as
a High Priest, which terminated in His resurrection and glorification (Phil 2:8ff)353; (ii) and
for man it became the cause and principle of perfection and eternal salvation for all those
who obey Him. His transformation constitutes Christ’s priestly consecration! Buttressing
this conclusion is the fact that the LXX Pentateuch always connects the verb teleiou/n
with the priestly consecration envisaged by the Torah. In Hebrew the expression used
literally means “to fill the hand” (Exo 29:33 ~d"y"-ta, aLem;l. millé yád). Thus,
Moses was charged with filling the hand of Aaron and his sons, that is, to consecrate them
as priests. The Septuagint translators adopted the expression “to make the hands perfect”,
Exo 29:9.29.33.35; Lev 4:5; 8:33; 16:32; Num 3:3. The Hebrew corresponding noun
millu’im is rendered as teleiw,sij in the LXX, Exo 29:22.26.27.31.34; Lev 7:37;
8:22.26.28.29.31.33. The author of Heb cannot have been unaware of this technicality. In
fact, his intention to allude to this usage here manifests itself a little later, cf. 7:11.19.28.
5:10: Since Christ possesses all the characteristics of a High Priest, He is rightly
addressed (lit. "greeted", prosagoreuqei,j) by the Father as such.
New Priestly Perspectives:
(i) Surprisingly, Paul does not mention any of the rites of consecration when he speaks of
“every high priest”354, Exo 29:39; Lev 8-9; Sir 45:7-15; in addition, he omits the ritual
vocabulary and chooses instead a common word, kaqi,statai, 5:1, making it clear that
he does not consider those rites of consecratory segregation essential to the priesthood.
(ii) Also, the way of electing a high priest is left as vague as possible; noted is only that
he is “taken from among men”. In the Torah one never finds such imprecision; on the
contrary, the Law is careful to determine the tribe from which the priest must stem, and the
family to which was entrusted the high priesthood. All other tribes and families would not
qualify for it, Exo 29:9.44; Num 1:50; 17:27–18:7. Moreover, Paul uses the most general
term a;nqrwpoj without any distinction of race, culture, or gender, and employs it in the
most indeterminate form, i.e., in the plural without the article, 5:1. The same universality is
to be noted in the formula that indicates the purpose of the priesthood: “established for
mankind”. Here, too, there is an innovation: the OT emphasizes that the priest serves God:
i`erateu,ein moi, Exo 28:1.3.4; 29:6. On the other hand, when it speaks of those who
have recourse to the priestly mediation, it never uses so general an expression but specifies
either the children of Israel or a determinate member of the chosen people. Heb, on its part,
tends to expand to infinity the priestly solidarity and divine service.
(iii) The most striking divergence from the customary Jewish viewpoint is the union of
the priest with humankind. It is true that Paul endeavors to discover that feature in the ritual
law of the OT, and succeeds in doing so by reminding the reader of the sacrifices prescribed
for the priests’ sins. But it must be recognized that the Jews had never seen it in this way, it
353
"Being consummated" or "being made perfect" (teleiwqei,j) alludes to His glorification
after the resurrection.
354
It is not astonishing that he does not mention the connection of the priest to the House of God nor
the priestly teaching function, because he will treat those topics elsewhere.
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never occurred to them that the priest, too, was enveloped in weakness. Rather, they saw
him clothed in glory, Sir 45:7-8; 50:5.11.
(iv) Yet, the author does not confuse the levels: the application of the priesthood to
Christ, 5:5-10, no longer speaks of sins, albeit 5:1-4 insisted on this point. Christ’s
vulnerability no longer involves sin! Whatever His anguish, Jesus remained united to God in
absolute devotion (euvla,beia) to the Father’s will; far from yielding to evil, He
“learned obedience”.
(v) Another difference is noticed in the link between the weakness and the offering,
implying a causality: the priest must offer sacrifices because of his weakness, 5:3; what he
offers is not his weakness but “gifts and sacrifices”, 5:1. Christ, on the contrary, does not
offer gifts and sacrifices outside His own person, rather, He presents His condition of
vulnerability and anguish to God in suppliant prayer. His offering is His very human
existence. We see here a passage from ritual external sacrifices to a personal existential
sacrifice. This fusion weakness/offering has been made possible precisely by the disjunction
of weakness/sinfulness. The weakness of the OT priests could not constitute an offering
worthy of God, because it contained sin offensive to God. On the contrary, the weakness of
Jesus, 2 Cor 13:4, includes nothing unpleasant to the Father.
(vi) Furthermore, the OT priests had to offer sacrifices, 5:3, but the text does not specify
eventuating effects of it. But in the case of Christ, the letter immediately affirms that He
“offered and was heard”, 5:7, and that His action became the “cause of salvation”. It is
decisive that the Father accepted His sacrifice, cf. 10:11f. It follows from this that the OT
offerings were largely ineffective; only the sacrifice of Christ constitutes a sacrifice in the
true sense, due to His prayer which opens our suffering to the sanctifying action of God.
(vii) 5:8 also involves a personal intrinsic transformation of the offerer himself, the most
radical innovation with regard to the OT priesthood. 5:1-4 does not hint at any change in the
sacrificing priest, whereas Christ “was made perfect”.
(viii) As we pass from the nebulous “is established”, 5:1, to a vigorous “perfected”, 5:9,
we realize that the consecration of the OT priest was fundamentally ritualistic, while Jesus
underwent an existential consecration in His Passion, 5:8-9.
(ix) Additionally, Christ’s consecration was not followed by a sacrificial ministry like the
OT priests. Heb does not state that He had been consecrated “in order to offer sacrifices”,
5:1, because His sacrifice was total, absolute and all-sufficient, rendering all other sacrifices
obsolete, cf. 7:27; 9:25; 10:11-14. Christ’s sacrifice is simultaneously consecration for
Himself and expiation for the sins of all, the basis of a New Covenant and perpetual
thanksgiving (cf. Eucharist). It replaces and surpasses all and every OT sacrifice, precisely
because it means real transformation.
Finally, one notices that 5:9-10 also functions as a conclusion to the whole section 3:1–
5:10 by recalling the two foundational marks of the priesthood: the mention of Jesus’
perfection closes the contemplation of the merciful and faithful High Priest of 4:14–5:10;
the mention of “salvation” recalls the authority of the priest, worthy of trust, concluding
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3:1–4:13. This twofold structure corresponds to the necessity of a double relationship for the
exercise of priestly mediation. In the first section Christ is shown to the faithful as the High
Priest invested with divine authority (descending movement), while in the second section
He is presented as someone who has become truly one with us, raising us up to God
(ascending movement), assuring a perfect mediation.
5:11–10:39: Central section of Hb.
6:1-3: The six examples of basic teaching are probably derived from a traditional
catechetical list.
6:4: “Enlightened and tasted the heavenly gift” (fwtisqe,ntaj(
geusame,nouj te th/j dwrea/j th/j evpourani,ou) may refer to baptism
and the Eucharist.
6:6: No effort is made to address apostates, for their very hostility to the Christian
message cuts them off completely from Christ. This harsh statement seems to rule out
repentance after apostasy, but perhaps the author deliberately uses hyperbole in order to
stress the seriousness of abandoning Christ.
6:12: The theme of imitating the faith of the righteous ones of the OT will be treated
fully in ch.11.
6:19: Mixed metaphor “anchor (a;gkura) ... veil (katape,tasma)”. The Holy
of Holies, beyond the veil that separates it from the Holy Place (cf. Exo 26:31-33), is seen
as the earthly counterpart of the heavenly abode of God. This theme will be developed in
ch.9.
7:1-28: New Priesthood according to Melchizedek.
7:1-3: Recalling Gen 14:17-20, the author enhances the significance of this priest by
providing the popular etymology of his name and that of his city (the messianic blessings of
justice and peace are prefigured here). Paul assumes that Melchizedek was a priest of the
God of Israel. Since Gen gives no information on his parentage or his death, he is seen as a
type of Christ, representing a priesthood that is unique and eternal. Gen 14 does not state
explicitly who gave tithes to whom. The author supplies Abraham as the subject according
to a contemporary interpretation.
7:3: The rabbis maintained that anything not mentioned in the Torah does not exist;
consequently, since the OT nowhere speaks about Melchizedek’s ancestry, birth or death,
the conclusion can be drawn that he remains forever.
7:7: There are many examples in the OT that do not support this principle (cf. 2 Sam
14:22; Jb 31:20). Maybe it is intended as a liturgical rule.
7:9: Levi designates not only the son of Jacob but the priestly tribe descended from
him.
7:11-14: Jesus was not associated with the OT priesthood, for He was a descendant
of the tribe of Judah, which had never exercised the priesthood.
7:15-19: Jesus does not exercise a priesthood through family lineage but through His
immortal existence, fulfilling Psa 110:4. He has attained to an indestructible life through His
resurrection: it is His exaltation rather than His divine nature that makes Him priest.
7:27: Such daily sacrifice is nowhere mentioned in the Mosaic Law; only on the Day
of Atonement is it prescribed that the high priest must offer sacrifice for his own sins and
then for those of the people, cf. Lev 16:11-19.
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8:1–9:28: Decisive Priestly Action.
8:1-5: Superior Sanctuary.
8:6-13: Superior Covenant and Gospel. Even in the time of Jeremiah, the first
covenant was antiquated. In 7:22-24 the superiority of the new covenant was seen in the
permanence of the priesthood; here the superiority is based on better promises, made
explicit in the citation of Jer 31 (LXX 38):31-34, in the immediacy of the people’s
knowledge of God and in the forgiveness of sin.
9:1–10:18: Superior Victim and Sacrifice.
9:1-10: Ineffectiveness of OT cult: The description of the sanctuary and its furnishings
is taken essentially from Exo 25-26. Exo 30:6 locates the “gold altar of incense” (v.4) in the
Holy Place, i.e., the first tabernacle, rather than in the Holy of Holies. Neither is there any
OT support for the assertion that the jar of manna and the staff of Aaron were in the ark of
the covenant. For the tablets of the covenant, see Exo 25:16. “Blood” (v.7) was essential to
OT sacrifice because it was believed that life was located in the blood. Hence blood was
especially sacred, and its outpouring functioned as a meaningful symbol of cleansing from
sin and reconciliation with God355. Unlike Hb, the OT never says that the blood is “offered”.
The author is retrojecting into his description of Mosaic ritual a concept that belongs to the
NT antitype, as Paul does when he speaks of the Israelites’ passage through the sea as a
‘baptism’, 1 Cor 10:2.
9:11-28: The definitive Sacrifice of the New Priest.
9:15-22: Christ’s role as mediator of the new covenant is based upon His sacrificial
death (cf. 8:6). A number of details in vv.19-21 are different from the description of this
covenant rite in Exo 24:5-8. Exo mentions only calves, not goats; it says nothing of the use
of water and crimson wool and hyssop356, and describes Moses as splashing blood on the
altar (Hb has “book”). Moses’ words are also slightly different from those in Exo and are
closer to the words of Jesus at the Last Supper in Mt 26:28 || Mk 14:24. The tabernacle did
not yet exist at the time of the covenant rite. Lastly, Israel did envisage other means of
obtaining forgiveness (than shedding of blood, cf. v.22): contrition of heart (Psa 51:19),
fasting (Jl 2:12), almsgiving (Sir 3:29).
9:28: Reference to Isa 53:12. Anafe,rein means both “to bear” and “to take
away”, cf. Jn 1:29. “Many” is the Semitic inclusive for “all” (cf. Mk 14:24). Christ will
reappear as the high priest reappear on the Day of Atonement, emerging from the Holy of
Holies, which He had entered to take away sin by His vicarious victimization. This dramatic
scene is depicted in Sir 50:5-11.
10:1-18: An Efficacious Sacrifice and its Fruits.
355
In Jewish tradition one begins the study of Torah with the chapters on sacrifice in the book of
Leviticus.
356
These features probably came from a different rite, cf. Lev 14:3-7; Num 19:6-18.
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10:1-10: Christ is here shown to understand His mission in terms of Psa 40:6-9a
(LXX)357. This passage is placed in the mouth of the Son at His incarnation.
10:5-9: Christ’s priestly self-oblation at the very instant of his Incarnation358 (see
also Heb 1:6-12); cf. Phil 2:6; Psa 139:13-16.
10:14: A consecration that is communicated; the participation of all believers in
the priesthood is affirmed! Two aspects of the priesthood must be distinguished: (i)
worship rendered to God, shared with all the faithful, (ii) mediation, reserved solely to
Christ (and His ordained ministers), 1 Tim 2:5; Jn 14:6. Nobody will be able to arrive at the
Father by bypassing the Son. As mediation is the most specific exercise of the priesthood359,
it is easy to see why Paul has not given the title “priests” to Christians360.
Theological Corollary on the Priesthood in Hebrews: We see the great depth of Saint
Paul’s answer to the question the Christians of the first century had to face: is the Christian
community without a priest? Does the priestly institution of the Old Covenant find its
fulfillment in the mystery of Christ or not? The answer is in the affirmative, not superficial,
but radically rooted in the events of Jesus’ life, in the texts of Scripture, and in Christian
experience. It demands a radical change of mentality. Heb could have said: “Do not regret
the old worship and ceremonies; we, too, can organize beautiful rituals!” No, the author
went to the root of the problem: the real liturgy is the life, death and resurrection of Christ.
Christians are then guided to go beyond the old conception of cult and priesthood. They
have an entirely new Priest, priesthood, and sacrifice. Their vocation does not lead them to
put their trust in exterior rites, but to pass through the existential sacrifice of Christ and so to
profit from His mediatorial power, allowing themselves to be purified by His blood.
Christians become capable of rendering an authentic worship to God, one which consists in
the transformation of their very existence by divine love. Paul’s response is not only
positive, it is also exclusive: Christ’s sacrifice is the only true one. He is the absolute and
only Priest and Victim. His is the only and exclusive priestly mediation. Because of this
exclusivity His priesthood becomes universally participative, that is, the faithful share in it.
Contained in this response is the reason why the apostles did not apply the LXX
i`ero,j-terminology to themselves, but chose terms expressive of service and mission for
themselves (epískopos, presbýteros, diákonos), to show how the OT priesthood comes to its
fulfillment in the common priesthood of the baptized faithful through Christ (cf. Isa 61:6),
to mark a clear distinction between the old and the new.
By explicitly bringing out the priestly character of the mystery of Christ, the letter to the
Hebrews has cast new light on the whole Christology. The Old Testament was directed by
God to prepare the fullest understanding of the riches of Christ, that surpass the limits of
royal Messianism. A new synthesis has been achieved: the notion of “sacrifice” embraces
There is a notable difference in v.5, where the Masoretic Text reads “ears you have dug for me”,
but most LXX mss have “a body you have prepared for me”, a reading obviously more suited to the
interpretation of Hb.
358
Cf. an ancient liturgical tradition that identified the 25th of March as both the day of His
Conception as well as of His death.
359
Cf. Pre,sbuj meaning also “ambassador” in Greek!
360
Not least because of the prevalent terminology of his time regarding high priests. In order to
avoid ambiguities the author preferred to leave it up to future times for the Church to propose the
terminology of priests and priesthood.
357
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now many other affirmations of the Christian faith, cf. Gal 1:4; 2:20; Rom 4:25; 1 Cor 15:34; Mk 10:45. Also, the sacrificial understanding of the Eucharist finds fuller confirmation.
Not least, the sacrificial concept of our Christian life is being underscored.
When the epistle speaks of the time of the New Covenant, it reserves to Christ alone the
vocabulary of the priesthood (hiereus, archiereus, hierosyne), for He alone possesses the
fullness of the priesthood and gives us all the opportunity to share in it. In addition to the
epistle to the Hebrews, two other writings apply priestly terminology to the Christian reality,
although just very briefly; these are the first epistle of Saint Peter, and the Apocalypse of
Saint John. They, too, base their teachings on the Old Testament. While Heb argues from
Psa 110, 1Pt and Apc exegete Exo. Unlike Heb, both writings apply the term “priests” to the
Christian people, certainly a complementary viewpoint. 1 Pt 2:4-10 explains, going beyond
Exo 19:6, how all Christians participate in that priestly dignity, under the leadership of
pastors, ministerial priests (the latter never mentioned in Hebrews); they are called to offer
sacrificial worship to God (vs. egalitarian or individualistic interpretation of the priesthood).
Finally, in Rev 1:6; 5:10; 20:6 specifically underlines the fusion of the priestly and royal
dignity in all Christians.
The complete rethinking of “sacrifice” involved a break with regard to the Old
Testament doctrine. At the same time the priesthood of Jesus fulfilled the Aaronic
priesthood. The absolute novelty proposed by the Letter to the Hebrews is the exclusivity of
His priestly position: Christ is the only new priest. One realizes that the common priesthood
is characterized by the personal offering, whereas the ministerial priesthood is essentially
mediation.
Finally, the greatness of the ordained priesthood consists in its share in the glorious agenealogical priesthood of Christ (not in Aaron’s genealogical priesthood); at the same time,
unfortunately, its precariousness resides in the fact that the ministerial priest does not share
in Jesus’ sinlessness (but has in common with Aaron his sinfulness). This is the dramatic
challenge of the Catholic priesthood.
10:19-25: The Christian situation.
10:22: The sprinkling motif refers to the Mosaic rite of exterior cleansing from ritual
impurity. Baptism cleanses the conscience.
10:25: The Christian assembly (evpisunagogh,) points to the Eucharist.
10:32: “Enlightenment” (fwtismo,j) is an ancient metaphor for baptism361 (cf.
Eph 5:14; Jn 9:11).
Exegesis of Hb 11:1-40 (Faith): The close of ch.10 (v.39) has shown that faith
(pi,stij) is essential to salvation, and hence Paul will now describe this important virtue
by citing some of the religious heroes of the past. These examples of what faith has done to
those ancient saints whom Jewish history most revered will be consoling to the readers, for
it will show them that their own Christian faith is a continuation of the same sustaining
Ironically, Christians were known as gens lucífuga (“photophobic” people, avoiding the light of
day) due to their underground status in the Roman empire prior to the AD 313 Edict of Milan (ex.gr.,
catacombs as preferred meeting places); they systematically adopted pagan symbols and
contemporary cultural expressions for their own contents of faith, so not to attract the attention of
hostile civic authorities. Thus, “light” was chosen as a universal metaphor to handily encrypt the
Christian sacrament of baptism.
361
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virtue of their ancestors, only on a more elevated plane. This chapter expands on 6:12. Sir
44:1–50:21 gives a similar praise of the ancestors.
11:1: Not a strict definition of the virtue of faith, but rather a description of some of
its practical results. "Substance" (u`po,stasij) may be taken subjectively for assurance
or firm conviction; or objectively, for basis or foundation (Greek Fathers). "Evidence"
(e;legcoj), objectively, as proof; subjectively, as conviction, or the result of
demonstration. Thus, by faith we are assured of the future things for which we hope, and
convinced of the reality and certainty of the things we do not see.
11:2: Because of their faith God bore witness to the ancient saints of Israel, causing
them to be praised in Sacred Scripture.
11:3: The author now gives some examples of faith, beginning with the work of
creation. We know only through faith that the world was created by God's Fiat362, from no
pre-existing matter (visible from invisible363).
11:4: It was faith that directed Abel to offer God a more worthy sacrifice than his
brother Cain (Gen 4:2ff.), for by faith he was able to recognize more clearly the supreme
excellence and the sovereign rights of God. Curiously, Abel’s faith is not brought up in Gen
4:1-16.
11:5: "Pleased God", the Hebrew has "walked with God"364; faith enabled Henoch to
commune with God.
11:6: The fact that we cannot please God without faith is a proof that Henoch had
365
faith . To deny God’s existence and goodness is folly, Psa 52:2.
11:7: Noah believed God's revelation about a flood to come, built an ark that
condemned the unbelieving world around him366; this faith made him "heir", i.e., possessor,
of the justification that comes through faith.
11:8: As Abraham was the supreme pattern of faith among the Jews, Paul now
dwells at length on his faith. The great patriarch's faith is portrayed in his (a) obedience to
the call of God to go in search of the promised land, vv.8-10; (b) confidence in God's
promise of offspring, vv.11-12; (c) willingness to sacrifice Isaac, vv.17-19.
"That is called Abraham", alluding to God's special favor in changing his original
name Abram to Abraham, Gen 17:5.
11:9: Faith gave him patience to wait for the fulfillment of the promises, cf. Gen
12:8; 13:3; 17:1ff.
11:10: Abraham was sustained in his faith by the conviction that there was an
abiding city, whose architect was God. Canaan was but a figure of an eternal inheritance.
11:11-12: Sara believed, even if less promptly than Abraham, and she was given the
power to conceive, Gen 17:17.
11:13-16: Paul interrupts his argument to reflect on the faith of the patriarchs
Abraham, Isaac and Jacob. The vision which faith disclosed to them was too glorious to find
362
Cf. Gen 1:3.6.9ff.
Therefore, all materialistic explanations of the origin of the universe are erroneous.
364
Cf. Gen 5:21-24.
365
A mere scientific acceptance of God's existence, obtained by the due exercise of reason, is not
sufficient for merit, since it is not free. The minimum required for salvation is to believe that God
exists and that He rewards His servants.
366
Cf. Mt 24:37ff.
363
122
its realization during their lifetime on earth. The object of their quest was a heavenly
country.
11:17-19: The aged patriarch Abraham did not waver even when his faith was sorely
tried, Gen 22:1-18. He felt that He who had given this son in the first instance by a miracle,
could restore him if necessary by a second miracle. "Parable", that is, as a reward of his faith
Abraham received his son safely back, making Isaac a parable/type/figure of the death and
resurrection of Christ.
11:20-21: Isaac and Jacob respectively pronounced blessings on their descendants,
assuring them that God's promises would be fulfilled for them and their children. "Each of
the sons of Joseph", i.e., Ephraim and Manasseh, Gen 48:1-20; then Jacob bowed in
reverence to God, leaning on his staff, Gen 47:29-31367.
11:22: By faith Joseph was convinced that the Israelites would be manumitted from
the bondage of Egypt, and that his own bones would be laid to rest in the Promised Land,
Gen 50:24.
11:23-26: It was an act of faith on the part of Moses' parents to hide their son away
in defiance of the royal decree, Ex 2:2.11. It was likewise an act of faith on Moses' part that
moved him to decline the royal position and prerogatives and identify himself with his own
outcast people. Faith in the Messiah to come was his motive and guiding principle, Rom
15:3, looking beyond his present distress to the reward hereafter.
11:27: The majority of expositors say the reference here must be to the flight of
Moses to Madian, as narrated in Ex 2:14ff. The reason given for his departure from Egypt
differs from the account in Exo 2:11-15. Paul also gives a Christological interpretation of
his decision to share the trial of his people.
11:28: Faith in obedience to God's command regarding the Passover, Ex 12:12-48.
11:29-31: The passage through the Red Sea, Ex 14:13ff, and the march around the
walls of Jericho, Jos 6:1ff, were powerful acts of faith on the part of the whole people.
Rahab's faith saved herself and her family from the common fate that befell the faithless
inhabitants of that city, Jos 2:1ff.
11:32: In vv.32-38 the sacred writer gives a brief statement on the faith found in
great leaders of Israel from the conquest of Canaan down to the time of the Maccabees,
although the names enumerated do not follow a chronological order.
11:33: "Obtained promises", particular promises which were subordinated to the one
great promise, v.39. "Stopped the mouths of lions", cf. Dan 6:22.
11:34: "Quenched the violence of fire", cf. Dan 3:17; 1 Macc 2:59.
11:35: "Women received their dead", see the widow of Sarepta, 1 Kgs 17:23, and the
Sunnamite, 2 Kgs 4:36. "Others were racked", referring to the martyrdom of Eleazar and the
seven brothers, 2 Macc 6-7.
11:36: Most of the sufferings mentioned in vv.36-38 were experienced by the
faithful during the persecution of Antiochus Epiphanes.
11:37-38: Zachary, son of Joiada, was stoned, 2 Chron 24:20ff; according to Jewish
tradition Isaiah was sawn asunder368. Those faithful servants of God were treated as outcasts
by a world that was not worthy of them.
367
The Hebrew of this phrase reads: "He did homage toward the head of his bed", i.e., Jacob
worshipped God, bowing in reverence toward the head of his bed.
368
Cf. The Ascension of Isaiah, V, 1-14.
123
11:39-40: General conclusion: All those heroes of the past gained a reputation for
faith, and to a certain extent realized the divine promises, but the promised Messiah they did
not live to see. Without any fault of theirs, the supreme reward of faith was denied to them,
being reserved for us of a later date; but with us they have entered into the full inheritance
of faith, being admitted to heaven through the Messianic blessings brought by Christ. Their
faith has been perfected through the revelation vouchsafed to us.
12:1-13: Christian life is to be inspired not only by OT men and women of faith but
above all by Jesus, the Architect of Christian faith; reflection on his suffering should give
everybody courage to endure hardship and to continue the struggle.
12:15-17: Esau serves as an example in two ways: (i) his mundane/profane attitude
illustrates the danger of apostasy, (ii) and his inability to secure a blessing afterward shows
the impossibility of repenting after falling away (cf. 6:4-6).
12:18-24: This remarkably beautiful passage contrasts two great assemblies of
people: Israelites at Sinai, Christians at Mount Zion (reminiscent of the celestial liturgies in
the Apocalypse).
13:7: h`goume,noj as a designation for priestly leaders and guides, cf.
13:17.24369.
10: Not a reference to the Eucharist, which is never clearly mentioned in Hb, but to the
sacrifice of Christ.
13:20-21: These verses constitute one of the most beautiful blessings in the NT: the
only explicit mention of Christ’s resurrection in the epistle.
For further elaboration on the Theology of the Pauline Letters, see Fernand PRAT,
The Theology of Saint Paul, London – Dublin 1964.
“As I keep hearing the Epistles of the Blessed Paul read […], gladly do I enjoy the
spiritual trumpet, and get roused and warmed with desire at recognizing the voice so dear to
me and seem to fancy him all but present to my sight, and to behold him conversing with
me. […] I grieve and am pained that all people do not know this man as much as they ought
to know him; […] and this comes not of incapacity, but of their not having the will to be
continually conversing with the blessed man.”370
A final quote from 2 Peter 3:14-16, where the head of the college of the apostles mentions
the wisdom of the apostle to the gentiles: Dio,( avgaphtoi,( tau/ta
prosdokw/ntej spouda,sate a;spiloi kai. avmw,mhtoi auvtw/|
eu`reqh/nai evn eivrh,nh| 15 kai. th.n tou/ kuri,ou h`mw/n
makroqumi,an swthri,an h`gei/sqe( kaqw.j kai. o` avgaphto.j
h`mw/n avdelfo.j Pau/loj kata. th.n doqei/san auvtw/| sofi,an
e;grayen u`mi/n( 16 w`j kai. evn pa,saij evpistolai/j lalw/n
evn auvtai/j peri. tou,twn( evn ai-j evstin dusno,hta, tina(
a] oi` avmaqei/j kai. avsth,riktoi streblou/sin w`j kai. ta.j
loipa.j grafa.j pro.j th.n ivdi,an auvtw/n avpw,leianÅ
369
370
Hégumen survives in Eastern Churches as the title of an Abbot.
John CHRYSOSTOM, Preface to St. Paul’s Epistles: Lesson IV, Com. II post Epiph.
124
(NVg “Propter quod, carissimi, haec exspectantes satagite immaculati et inviolati ei
inveniri in pace; et Domini nostri longanimitatem, salutem arbitramini, sicut et carissimus
frater noster Paulus secundum datam sibi sapientiam scripsit vobis, sicut et in omnibus
epistulis loquens in eis de his; in quibus sunt quaedam difficilia intellectu, quae indocti et
instabiles depravant, sicut et ceteras Scripturas, ad suam ipsorum perditionem.”)
125
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127
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128
OMNIA AD MAIOREM DEI GLORIAM
129