Abnormal Psychology, Thirteenth Edition by Ann M. Kring, Sheri L. Johnson, Gerald C. Davison, & John M. Neale © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Chapter 2: Current Paradigms in Psychopathology I. The Genetic Paradigm II. The Neuroscience Paradigm III. The Cognitive Behavioral Paradigm IV. Factors That Cut Across the Paradigms V. Diathesis-Stress: An Integrative Paradigm © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Goal: Study abnormal behavior scientifically Science aims for objectivity Paradigm (Thomas Kuhn) • Perspective or conceptual framework from within which a scientist operates We can never be totally objective; subjective factors interfere No one paradigm sufficient to completely explain psychopathology © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Heredity plays a role in most behavior Genes • Carriers of genetic information (DNA) • Impacted by environmental influences e.g., stress, relationships, culture Relationship between genes and environment is bidirectional • Nature via nurture (Ridley, 2003) © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Gene expression • Proteins influence whether the action of a specific gene will occur Polygenic transmission • Multiple gene pairs vs. single gene Heritability • Extent to which variability in behavior is due to genetic factors Heritability estimate ranges from 0.00 to 1.00 Group, rather than individual, indicator © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Shared environment • Events and experiences that family members have in common Nonshared environment • Events and experiences that are unique to each family member © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Study of the degree to which genes and environmental factors influence behavior Genotype • Genetic material inherited by an individual • Unobservable Phenotype • Expressed genetic material • Observable behavior and characteristics • Depends on interaction of genotype and environment © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Identifies • Alleles particular genes and their functions Different forms of the same gene • Polymorphism Difference in DNA sequence on a gene occurring in a population SNPs (Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms) • Identify differences in sequence of genes CNVs (Copy Number Variations) • Identify differences in structure of genes; can be additions or deletions in DNA within genes Knockout studies • Removing specific genes in animals to observe effect on behavior © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. © ©2014 Inc.All Allrights rightsreserved. reserved. 2015John JohnWiley Wiley & & Sons, Sons, Inc. Gene-environment interaction • One’s response to a specific environmental event is influenced by genes Epigenetics • Study of how the environment can alter gene expression or function • Cross-fostering adoptee method Rats born to mothers with low parenting skills who were raised by mothers with high parenting skills showed lower levels of stress reactivity (Francis et al., 1999) Environment (mothering) was responsible for turning on (or turning up) the expression of a particular gene © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Genes predispose individuals to seek out situations that increase the likelihood of developing a disorder. • Adolescent girls with genetic vulnerability for depression more likely to experience events that can trigger depression (Silberg et al., 1999) • Dependent life events influenced by genes (Kendler and Baker, 2007) © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Examines the contribution of brain structure and function to psychopathology • Mental disorders are linked to aberrant processes in the brain. Three major components: • Neurons and neurotransmitters • Brain structure and function • Neuroendocrine system © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Neurons • Cells of the nervous system Four major parts • • • • Cell body Dendrites Axons Terminal buttons Nerve Impulse • Dendrites or cell body stimulated • Travels downs axon to terminal Synapse • Gap between neurons © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Neurotransmitter • Chemicals that allow neurons to send a signal across the synapse to another neuron Receptor sites on postsynaptic neuron absorb neurotransmitter • Excitatory • Inhibitory Reuptake • Reabsorption of leftover neurotransmitter by presynaptic neuron © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Serotonin and dopamine • Implicated in depression, mania, and schizophrenia Norepinephrine • Implicated in anxiety and other stress-related disorders Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) • Inhibits nerve impulses • Implicated in anxiety Possible mechanisms • • • • Excessive or inadequate levels Insufficient reuptake Excessive number or sensitivity of postsynaptic receptors Second messengers help neurons adjust receptor sensitivity after periods of high activity Agonist drugs stimulate neurotransmitter receptor sites Antagonist drugs dampen neurotransmitter receptor sites © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Two cerebral hemispheres • Connected by corpus callosum Sulci (fissures) define regions or lobes of the cerebrum (gray matter): • Frontal (Reasoning, Problem Solving, Emotion Regulation) • Parietal (Sensory-Spatial) • Occipital (Vision) • Temporal (Sounds) © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. White Matter Interior • Ventricles – filled with cerebrospinal fluid • Myelinated (sheathed) nerve fibers • Thalamus Sensory relay station (except olfactory) • Brain Stem Pons and medulla oblongata • Cerebellum Responsible for balance, posture, equilibrium © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Limbic System (outdated term): • Often implicated in psychopathology • Involved in the expression of emotions • Amygdala is key brain structure for psychopathology researchers due to role in attending to emotionally salient stimuli and in emotionally relevant memories © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. HPA axis involved in stress Hypothalamus triggers release of corticotropinreleasing hormone (CRF) Pituitary gland releases adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) Adrenal cortex triggers release of cortisol, the stress hormone • Takes 20-40 minutes for cortisol to peak • Takes up to 1 hour for cortisol levels to return to baseline © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychoneuroimmunology – the study of how psychological factors impact the immune system Two types of immunity: • Natural immunity • Specific immunity The link between stress and the immune system has several direct implications for overall health. © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychoactive drugs alter neurotransmitter activity • Antidepressants • Antipsychotics • Benzodiazepenes A neuroscience view does not preclude psychological interventions © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Reductionism • View that behavior can best be understand by reducing it to its basic biological components Ignores more complex views of behavior © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Roots in learning principles and cognitive Behavior is reinforced by consequences • • • • Attention Escape or avoidance Sensory stimulation Access to desirable objects or events To alter behavior, modify consequences • Time out Systematic desensitization • Relaxation plus exposure Imaginal or in vivo • Important treatment for anxiety disorders © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. science Behaviorism emotions Cognition criticized for ignoring thoughts and • A mental process that includes: Perceiving, recognizing, conceiving, judging, and reasoning Schema • Organized network of previously accumulated knowledge • We actively interpret new information Role of attention in psychopathology • Anxious individuals more likely to attend to threat or danger © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Contemporary theorists have attempted to study the unconscious scientifically Implicit memory • The unconscious may reflect efficient information processing rather than being a repository for troubling material © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Attends to thoughts, perceptions, judgments, self-statements, and unconscious assumptions Cognitive Restructuring • Change a pattern of thinking • Changes in thinking can change feelings, behaviors, and symptoms © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Initially developed for depression Depression caused by distorted thoughts • Nothing ever goes right for me! Information-Processing Bias • Attention, interpretation, and recall of negative and positive information biased in depression Help patients recognize and change maladaptive thought patterns © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Focus is on current determinants of disorder • Childhood and other historical antecedents given less attention Are distorted thoughts the cause or the result of psychopathology? • Causal status unclear © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Affect vs. mood Emotion • Components Expressive Experiential Physiological • Most psychopathology includes disturbances of one or more component e.g., flat affect in schizophrenia What is your ideal affect? • Happiness vs. calmness © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Sociocultural Factors • Gender, race, culture, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status • May increase vulnerability to psychopathology e.g., women more likely to experience depression than men • Some disorders specific to certain cultures Hikikomori in Japanese culture © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Object relations theory • Longstanding patterns of relating to others Attachment theory • Type and style of infant’s attachment to caregivers can influence later psychological functioning Relational self • Individuals will describe themselves differently depending upon which close relationships they are told to think about Interpersonal therapy (IPT) • Impact of current relationships on psychopathology • Unresolved grief; Role transitions; Role disputes; Social deficits © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Integrative model that incorporates multiple causal factors • Genetic, neurobiological, psychological, and environmental Diathesis • Underlying predisposition May be biological or psychological • Increases one’s risk of developing disorder Stress • Environmental events May occur at any point after conception Triggering event Psychopathology unlikely to result from one single factor © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Copyright 2015 by John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY. All rights reserved. No part of the material protected by this copyright may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any information storage and retrieval system, without written permission of the copyright owner. © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.