Unit 2
Ch. 4, 5 & 6
Awareness
Important Terms
 Sense: A system that translates information
from outside the nervous system into
neural activity
 Sensations: Messages from the senses
 Perception: The process of making
sensations into meaningful experiences
2
Perceptual Processing
Top-down processing: Those
aspects of recognition that are
guided by higher-level cognitive
processes and psychological factors
such as knowledge and expectations
and desires
3
Top-Down Processing
Information processing guided by
higher-level mental processes as we
construct perceptions, drawing on
our experience and expectations.
THE CHT
4
Perceptual Processing
Bottom-up processing: Aspects
of recognition that depend first on
the information about the stimulus
that comes up to the brain from the
sensory receptors
5
Attention
The process of directing and focusing
psychological resources to enhance
perception and performance
Attention improves mental processing
Attention takes effort
Attention is limited
6
Attention
We have lots of stimuli coming in. We can
use selective attention to “tune in” to what
we want to see or hear. But sometimes our
attention controls us.
Cocktail Party effect – when we hear our
name, we suddenly pay attention to a
conversation we were not following.
7
Transduction
The process of converting the
physical sensation into a neural
transmission.
When energy from the world
(light, sound waves, heat, etc.)
becomes pulses of neurons firing.
8
Perception video
 http://www.learner.org/series/discoveringpsychology/07/
e07expand.html
Structures of the Ear
The Cochlea
where Transduction occurs
11
Localization of Sounds
Because we have two ears, sounds that reach
one ear faster than the other ear cause us to
localize the sound.
12
Light waves and Sound waves
 For waves of light the wavelength/frequency
determines the color of the light. ROYGBIV
 The amplitude determines the brightness or intensity of
the light.
 For sound, wavelength/frequency determines the pitch
of the sound.
High frequency = high pitches
 The amplitude of the wave determines the loudness of
the sound. An amp.
13
The Eye
14
Parts of the eye
1. Cornea: Transparent tissue where light
enters the eye.
2. Iris: Muscle that expands and contracts
to change the size of the opening
(pupil) for light.
3. Lens: Focuses the light rays on the
retina.
4. Retina: Contains rods and cones that do
Transduction of light into neurons
firing to the brain.
15
Photoreceptors:
Rods and Cones
Cones see Colors
Concentrated in fovea (focal point in
middle of retina)
Rods sense light and dark
Used most in low light
Concentrated in peripheral areas
16
Optic Nerve, Blind Spot & Fovea
Optic nerve: Carries neural impulses from the eye
to the brain. Blind Spot: Point where the optic
nerve leaves the eye because there are no receptor
cells located there. This creates a blind spot.
Fovea: Central point in the retina around which
the eye’s cones cluster.
17
http://www.bergen.org
Crossed visual field
Trichromatic Theory of Color Vision
Any color can be produced by mixing
pure versions of blue, green, and
red light in different ratios
Problem: The trichromatic theory
cannot explain some aspects of
color vision, such as afterimages.
19
Opponent-Process Theory
of Color Vision
Visual elements sensitive to color are
grouped into three pairs
The members of each pair oppose, or
inhibit, each other
Three pairs are:
red-green
blue-yellow
and
black20
The Chemical Senses
 Olfaction detects airborne chemicals
Our sense of smell
Only sense that doesn’t go to thalamus.
Goes to Amygdala
 Gustation detects chemicals that come into
contact with receptors inside the mouth
(tastebuds)
Our sense of taste
21
Smell, Taste, and Flavor
Most of properties that make food
taste good are actually odors detected
by olfactory system, not activities of
the taste system
Taste is also influenced by hunger.
Food tastes better when you are
hungrier.
22
Kinesthesia is the sense of where parts
of the body are in space with respect to
each other
Necessary to guide movement
Kinesthetic information comes primarily
from the joints as well as muscles
Kinesthetic Intelligince is one of
Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences
23
Gate Control Theory: There is a “gate”
in the spinal chord that either permits or
blocks the passage of pain impulses to the
brain
The “gate” can close the pain signal if
something else is more important or
another signal comes along – why we rub
or shake injured areas.
24
Vestibular sense tells the brain
about the position of the head in space
and about its general movements
Often referred to as the sense of
balance
Semicircular canals in ears act like
levels
25
Absolute threshold: The minimum
amount of stimulus energy that can be
detected 50% of the time
Subliminal stimuli: Stimuli below
this threshold
(sub = below, limi = limit, subliminal =
below limit)
Subliminal messages can NOT control
your behavior
26
Some Absolute Thresholds
27
Why Does an “Absolute”
Threshold Vary?
 Sensitivity refers to our ability to pick
out a particular stimulus. It is influenced
by:
The intensity of the signal
The capacity of sensory systems
The amount of background stimulation, or
“noise”
28
Signal-Detection Theory
A model of perception that focuses on
whether a signal (stimuli) was perceived
or not
 Heavily influenced by expectations and
situations. For example if you are expecting a
phone call, you are more likely to hear your
phone. But you are also more likely to
mistake a phone on TV for your home phone.
29
Signal-Detection Theory
Types of outcomes:
“Hit”: Correctly detecting the
stimulus
“False alarm”: Reporting a stimulus
is present when, in fact, it is not there
“Miss”: Not reporting a stimulus that
is present
30
Signal-Detection Theory
Types of outcomes:
“Hit”: phone rings, you answer
“False alarm”: you pick up phone,
but it wasn’t ringing
“Miss”: phone rings, you don’t hear
it.
31
Detecting Differences Between Stimuli
Difference Threshold or Just-
Noticeable Difference (JND):
The smallest detectable difference
in the stimulus. The point at which
we are aware of a change.
32
Difference Threshold
 Weber’s Law: The smallest detectable
difference in stimulus energy is a fraction
(like a percentage) of the intensity of the
stimulus.
 Examples: it takes 2% more or less weight to
notice a change.
 It takes a noise that is 10% louder or quieter
to notice.
33
Weber’s
Fraction (K)
for
Different
Stimuli
34
Sensory Adaptation: Diminished
sensitivity as a consequence of constant
stimulation.
Put a band aid on your
arm and after awhile
you don’t sense it.
Work with manure all
day and you stop
smelling it.
35
Perceptual Constancy
We perceive things as constant and
unchanging even as our sensations of them
change
 When I dim the lights, colors coming in my eyes
change, but I don’t think the items changed colors.
 When someone walks toward me they get bigger in
my vision, but I know they are the same size just
closer.
36
Gestalt psychologists showed that
a figure formed a “whole” different
than its surroundings.
“Whole is greater than the sum of
its parts”
Figure – is what our focus sees
Ground – is the background
37
Gestalt Principles
of Perceptual Grouping
38
Why Do we use these Gestalt Grouping
Principles?
 Likelihood principle: The principles
reflect the way stimuli are likely to be
organized in the natural world
 Simplicity principle: We organize stimulus
elements in a way that gives us the simplest
possible perception
39
Monocular Cues for Depth
Perception
Mon (one) ocular (eye)
depth you can perceive with only one
eye
40
Monocular Cues for Depth Perception
Interposition: If one thing
blocks another from view,
that thing must be closer
Relative Size:We know
smaller is farther, we know
how big things ought to be
compared to each other
41
Monocular Cues for Depth Perception
Linear Perspective:
Parallel lines converge on
horizon
Reduced Clarity: Closer
is clearer. Farther is fuzzier
Height in the Visual
Field: Generally, higher is
farther away
42
Binocular depth cues
 Binocular Disparity: A
depth cue based on the
difference between the
images received on the
retina of the right eye and
the left eye.
 How 3D Movies work
Perception of Motion
 Looming: Rapid expansion in the size of an image
so that it fills the retina
 Stroboscopic Motion: Tendency
to perceive movement when a series
of still images appear, one at a time,
in rapid succession (cartoons, films)
 Phi Phenomenon:When lights flash one after
the other they present illusions of motion. Neon
signs and Christmas lights use this principle to
create motion perception.
44
Chapter 5
 Motivation and Needs
 Modules 11 & 12
What Is Motivation?
 Motivation: The factors that make us do things, motivation
leads to behavior
 Biological factors
 Emotional factors
 Cognitive factors
 Social factors
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
11–46
Theories of Motivation
Instinct Theory
Drive Reduction Theory
Arousal Theory
Incentive Theory
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11–47
Instinct Theory
 Instincts: Automatic, involuntary, and
unlearned behavior patterns triggered by
particular stimuli
 A number of human behaviors are present at
birth
 Evolutionary approach suggests that such
behaviors have evolved because they were
adaptive for promoting human survival
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11–48
Drive Reduction Theory and
Homeostasis
Homeostasis is the natural or
balanced state we are normally
in. Not too happy, not too sad.
Not too hyper, not too tired. Not
really hungry, not really full.
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
11–49
According to Drive Reduction
Theory, we experience
motivation when we move away
from Homeostasis, and take
action to get back to
Homeostasis.
• Ex: Get hungry so we eat. We
get stressed about a test so we
study
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11–50
Drive Reduction Theory and
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Homeostasis
11–51
Drive Reduction Theory
Two types of drives
Primary Drives: Drives that stem from
biological needs
e.g., the need for food or water
Secondary Drives: Learned drives that
motivate us to act as if we had an unmet
basic need
e.g., money
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
11–52
Arousal Theory
 Arousal: The general level of activity
in several physiological systems
People sometimes try to reduce
arousal while other times try to
increase arousal
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11–53
 Arousal Theory: People are motivated
to behave in ways that keep them at their
own optimal level of arousal
Optimal level is higher for some than
others
People with naturally low arousal are
the ones who become thrill-seekers
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11–54
Arousal affects performance.
•The more aroused (fired up) you are the
better you will perform at easy or routine
tasks.
-Ex: Get fired up for weightlifting or
most sports
•However, more arousal leads to worse
performance on complex or new tasks.
-Ex: Stay calm for brain surgery and
playing chess.
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
11–55
Arousal and Performance
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11–56
Incentive Theory: Emphasizes the role
of external stimuli that motivate
behavior
People respond to incentives (rewards)
to motivate behavior
Ex: Pay bonuses at work, Luella
Express Cards,
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11–57
Extrinsic vs Intrinsic Motivation
 Extrinsic Motivation: Behavior is motivated
by a desire for external rewards, such as money
or praise
 I’ll work longer, but only for more money
 Intrinsic Motivation: Behavior is motivated
by internal satisfaction, no external force
 I work longer because I care about the outcome
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11–58
Extrinsic vs Intrinsic Motivation
When you provide Extrinsic
motivators (money) for something
that previously was done for
Intrinsic motivation (joy), you
reduce the Intrinsic motivation
Pro Athletes
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11–59
Extrinsic vs Intrinsic Motivation
Extrinsic can reduce Intrinsic
Example: I used to volunteer to tutor,
then they started paying me. Then they
ran out of money for the tutoring
program and I won’t do it for free
anymore.
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11–60
Hierarch of Needs
Abraham Maslow (1970)
suggested that certain needs have
priority over others.
Physiological needs like
breathing, thirst, and hunger
come before psychological needs
such as achievement, selfesteem, and the need for
recognition.
(1908-1970)
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11–61
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Motives (Needs)
Source: Adapted from Maslow, 1943
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11–62
Biological Signals
for Hunger and Satiety (fullness)
 Signals from the stomach
 Stomach cues can affect eating, but they do not always
control it
 Stomach Cues appear to operate mainly when one is very
hungry or very full
 Signals from the blood
 More precise signals about the body’s fuel level and
nutrient needs are sent to the brain from the blood
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11–63
Set point theory
Set point theory says we have a “set
point.” When we get below this
level, we eat. When we get above
this level we stop.
Like a thermostat.
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11–64
Emotions
Emotions are:
Partly inner (mental) experiences
Partly physiological (bodily
systems)
Emotions are a whole body
experience
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11–65
Three Basic Features of the Brain’s
Control of Emotions
Activity in the limbic system,
especially in the amygdala, is central
to various aspects
of emotion
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11–66
James-Lange Theory
The James-Lange
Theory proposes
that physiological
activity precedes
the emotional
experience.
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11–67
James-Lange Theory of Emotion
I see a bear.
I’m running and my heart is pounding.
I must be afraid.
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11–68
Lie Detection
 James’ peripheral theory forms the basis for
the lie detection industry
 If body reacts before mind, your body will give
you away before your mind can control it.
 Specific patterns of physiological activity should
accompany the anxiety or guilt associated with
lying
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
11–69
Cannon-Bard Theory
Walter Cannon and Phillip Bard
questioned the James-Lange
Theory and proposed that an
emotion-triggering stimulus and
the body's arousal take place
simultaneously.
-paralyzed people feel emotions
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11–70
Cannon-Bard Theory
I see a bear.
Simultaneously, I start to run and
realize I am afraid
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11–71
Two-Factor Theory
Stanley Schachter and
Jerome Singer proposed
yet another theory which
suggests our physiology
and cognitions create
emotions. Emotions have
two factors:
physical arousal and
cognitive label.
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11–72
Two-Factor Theory
Schachter and Singer gave subjects adrenaline
and put them in a waiting room. They did this
in three conditions, one with no one else, one
with a confederate posing as a subject who
flipped out with anxiety, and one with a
confederate who acted super happy.
Guess what happened?
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11–73
Cognitive Theories:
Schachter-Singer Theory of Emotion
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11–74
Schachter-Singer Theory
(aka) Schachter Two Factor Theory
I see a bear.
I am excited because I am in a
state park and in my car
I am scared because I am lost
in the woods, and I just
frightened the bear’s cubs.
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11–75
Innate Expressions of Emotion
Newborns display some unlearned
facial expressions
People in all cultures show similar
facial responses to similar emotional
stimuli
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11–76
Culture and Emotional Expression
When culturally diverse people were
shown basic facial expressions, they did
fairly well at recognizing them
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11–77
Emotions are Adaptive
Darwin speculated
that our ancestors
communicated with
facial expressions in
the absence of
language. Nonverbal
facial expressions led
to our ancestor’s
survival.
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
Charles Darwin (1809-1882)
11–78
Social and Cultural Influences
on Emotional Expression
 Not all emotion is universal. People learn to
express certain emotions in ways specified by
cultural rules
 Smiles can vary as people learn to use them to
communicate certain feelings
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
11–79
Conflicting Motives and Stress
 Three basic types of motivational conflicts
Approach-approach: Must choose only
one of two desirable activities
Avoidance-avoidance: Must select one of
two undesirable alternatives
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
11–80
Conflicting Motives and Stress
 Three basic types of motivational conflicts
Approach-avoidance: A single activity
or event has both attractive and unattractive
features
 Please note this is not a choice between a good option
and a bad option. That wouldn’t create stress
11–81
Conflicting Motives and Stress
 Motivational conflicts may create stress
 Most in a motivational conflict are tense, irritable,
and particularly vulnerable to physical and
psychological problems
 Conflicts can even lead to depression or other
serious disorders
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
11–82
Stress
Psychological states cause physical
illness. Stress is any circumstance (real or
perceived) that threatens a person’s wellbeing.
Stress and Illness
Stress can be adaptive. In a
fearful or stress- causing
situation, we can run away and
save our lives. Stress can be
maladaptive. If it is prolonged
(chronic stress), it increases our
risk of illness and health
problems.
Stress and Causes of Death
Prolonged stress combined with unhealthy
behaviors may increase our risk for one of
today's four leading diseases.
General Adaptation Syndrome
According to Selye, a stress
response to any kind of stimulation is
similar. The stressed individual goes
through three phases:
•Alarm – something's need action
•Resistance – I act
•Exhaustion – I am worn out
Personality Types
Type A is a term used for competitive, harddriving, impatient, verbally aggressive, and
anger-prone people.
Type B refers to easygoing, relaxed people
Type A personalities are more likely to develop
coronary heart disease.
Explanatory Style
People with an optimistic (instead of
pessimistic) explanatory style tend to have
more control over stressors, cope better
with stressful events, have better moods,
and have a stronger immune system.
Chapter 6
 Stress & Health
 Modules 13 & 14
Module 13
Effects of Stress
Health Psychology
 A subfield of psychology that focuses on
how stress affects our well being and our
health
Stress
 The process by which we perceive and
respond to events that we appraise as
threatening or challenging
 Is a process of perceiving and
responding
 The events are called stressors.
 The response is called a stress reaction.
Stress
 Play “What is Stress?” (4:17) Segment
#35 from Psychology: The Human
Experience.
Module 13: Effects of Stress
Stress:
Responding to Stress
Responding to Stress
Responding to Stress
Responding to Stress
Hans Selye (1907-1982)
 Psychologist who researched recurring
responses to stress
 Discovered various chemicals caused
stress reactions in animals
 Developed the concept of the general
adaptation syndrome (GAS)
General Adaptation Syndrome
 Alarm Reaction – nervous system
activated in response to stressor
 Resistance – body responds with
physiological reactions to cope with the
stressor
 Exhaustion – body’s resistance to stress
is depleted (physical deterioration)
General Adaptation Syndrome
General Adaptation Syndrome
General Adaptation Syndrome
Hans Selye Interview
 Insert “Han’s Selye’s Stress Response
Studies” Video #39 from Worth’s Digital
Media Archive for Psychology.
 Instructions for importing the video file
can be found in the ‘Readme’ file on the
CD-ROM.
Module 13: Effects of Stress
Stress:
Stressful Events
Daily Stress
 Stress can be caused by:
 Typical demands of the day
 Living situations
 Economic difficulties
Stress on the Job
 Insert “Stress on the Job” Video #38
from Worth’s Digital Media Archive for
Psychology.
 Instructions for importing the video file
can be found in the ‘Readme’ file on the
CD-ROM.
 This clip is also in the Brain Series.
Stress on the Job
 Play “Emotions, Stress, and Health”
(10:59) Module #21 from The Brain:
Teaching Modules (2nd edition).
 Part of this clip is also on Worth’s
Digital Media Archive CD-ROM.
Burnout
 Physical, emotional, and mental
exhaustion brought on by persistent
stress
 Burnout can result in:
 Depression
 Decreased performance
 Cynicism
Significant Life Changes
 Stress can be the result of personal life
changes
 Death of a loved one
 Leaving home for college
 Can result in health problems
Catastrophes
 Large scale stress events (i.e.
earthquakes, floods, war, etc.
 Prolonged exposure can lead to physical
and psychological problems.
Module 13: Effects of Stress
Effects of Perceived
Control
Perceived Control
 The sense of control or influence one has
over stressful events in one’s life
 Most studies suggest the lower the
perceived control the larger the potential
for health-related problems
 Lower perceived control leads to a
lowered immunity to disease.
Control and Stress
 Play “Coping with Stress: Control and
Predictability” (2:49) Module #22 from
The Brain: Teaching Modules (2nd
edition).
Optimism
 A generally positive outlook on the
future
 Optimists have stronger immune
systems and recover faster from health
problems.
 Opposite of pessimism
Stress Hormones
 Hormones released in response to stress
 The body must work to rid the body of
the stress hormones.
 Pessimism and perceived lack of control
both produce more stress hormones.
Module 13: Effects of Stress
Stress and Disease:
Cancer and Stress
Stress-Cancer Connection
 Evidence for a connection is not
conclusive.
 Two conclusions:
 Stress does not create cancer cells.
 Stress affects the body’s malignancyfighting ability.
Cognition and Cancer
 Play “Cognition and the Immune
System: Mind/Body Interaction” (10:20)
Segment #4 from The Mind: Psychology
Teaching Modules (2nd edition).
Module 13: Effects of Stress
Stress and Disease:
Stress and Heart
Problems
Type A Individuals
 Individuals who are competitive, hard-
driving, impatient, verbally aggressive,
and anger-prone.
 More prone to heart attacks and other
stress related illnesses
Type B Individuals
 Individuals who are easygoing, laid-
back, and relaxed
Module 14
Promoting Wellness
Martin Seligman (1942-
)
 American psychologist
 Proponent of positive psychology
 Former president of the APA
Wellness
 The common result of a healthy lifestyle
and healthy attitudes
Module 14: Promoting Wellness
Healthy Lifestyles:
Exercise
Benefits of Daily Exercise
 Effective in reducing anxiety and
depression
 Leads to greater self confidence and self
discipline
Exercise and Mental Health
(Adapted from McCann and Holmes, 1984)
Module 14: Promoting Wellness
Healthy Lifestyles:
Family and Friends
Benefits of Social Support
 Social support – makes people feel liked
and wanted
 Social support leads to:
 Less physical problems
 More pleasure in life
 Longer life span
Module 14: Promoting Wellness
Healthy Lifestyles:
The Faith Factor
Benefits of Religious Activity
 Studies suggest those involved in
religion tend to live longer
 Factors of religion contributing to longer
life include:
 Religion promotes healthy lifestyles.
 Religious involvement offers social
support.
 Many religions promote optimism.
The Faith Factor Explained
The Faith Factor Explained
The Faith Factor Explained
The Faith Factor Explained
The Faith Factor Explained
Module 14: Promoting Wellness
Positive Experiences
and Well-Being
Positive Psychology
 Subfield of psychology that focuses on
the study of optimal human functioning
and the factors that allow individuals
and communities to thrive
Well-being
 Concept that includes life satisfaction,
feelings of fulfillment, pleasant
emotions, and low level of unpleasant
emotions
 Person judges life as satisfying,
fulfilling, and “going well”
Module 14: Promoting Wellness
Positive Experiences
and Well-Being:
Flow
Flow
 A state of optimal experience
 People do the activity for its own sake.
 For flow to occur:
 Must be a challenge requiring skill
 Have clear goals
 Provide feedback
Module 14: Promoting Wellness
Positive Experiences
and Well-Being:
Happiness
Characteristics of Happy People
 High self-esteem
 Optimistic, outgoing, agreeable
 Close friendships or satisfying marriage
 Work and leisure that engages skills
 Meaningful religious faith
 Sleep well and exercise
Module 14: Promoting Wellness
Positive Experiences
and Well-Being:
Optimism
Explanatory Style
 Our tendencies toward thinking
positively or negatively about the
causes of events
 Can be optimistic or pessimistic
Optimism
 The tendency to expect the best
 Believe bad events are:
 Temporary
 Not their fault
 Will not have broader effects beyond
the present circumstances
Pessimism
 The tendency to expect the worst
 Tend to blame themselves for bad
situations
 Tend to see the negative as permanent in
nature
Module 14: Promoting Wellness
Overcoming
Illness-Related
Behaviors:
Smoking
Dangers of Smoking
(World Health Organization, 1999)
Nicotine
 The behavioral stimulant found in
tobacco
Withdrawal
 The discomfort and distress that follows
discontinuing the use of an addictive
drug such as nicotine
10 Guidelines to Quitting Smoking
 1. Set a specific date to quit.
 2. Inform other people of your plans.
 3. Get rid of all cigarettes.
 4. Review previous attempts to quit and
anticipate challenges.
 5. Use a nicotine patch or gum.
10 Guidelines to Quitting Smoking
(continued)
 6. Be totally abstinent.
 7. Avoid alcohol.
 8. Quit together with family or friends
who also smoke (especially those at
home or work).
 9. Avoid places where others smoke.
 10. Exercise regularly.
Module 14: Promoting Wellness
Overcoming
Illness-Related
Behaviors:
Obesity
Body Mass Index (BMI)
 A person’s weight in kilograms divided
by their squared height in meters.
 U.S. guidelines suggest a person’s BMI
should be below 25.
 The World Health Organization defines
obesity as a BMI of 30 or over.
Module 14: Promoting Wellness
Overcoming
Illness-Related
Behaviors:
Weight Control
Fat Cells
 Average adult has 30 billion fat cells
 The cells enlarge as more calories are
taken in.
 One pound of fat is the energy
equivalent to 3500 calories.
 Dieting reduces the size of the cells but
not the number of cells.
Set Point
 The point at which an individual’s
“weight thermostat” is supposedly set
 When the body falls below this weight,
increased hunger and a lower metabolic
rate may act to restore the lost weight.
Metabolic Rate
 The body’s resting rate of energy
expenditure
 Rate varies from person to person with
genetic influences
Tips for Losing Weight
 Reduce exposure to tempting foods cues.
 Boost your metabolism.
 Be patient, realistic, and moderate.
 Permanently change the food you eat.
 Control your portions.
 Don’t skip breakfast and lunch.
 Set attainable goals.