The Psychodynamic Approach:
Psychodynamic Approach:
Key terms & definitions
Theory of unconscious mind
Conscious: mental processes of which we are fully aware, including easily recalled memories,
motivations.
 Pre-conscious: mental processes just below the conscious ‘surface’. Memories, motivations that
can be recalled to consciousness under particular circumstances.
 Unconscious: mental processes that can never be recalled to consciousness: instincts & deeply
buried memories; e.g., unacceptable sexual or aggressive thoughts, fears, shameful & painful
memories, irrational desires – this is the largest part of personality. 2 very powerful instincts
reside in the unconscious: Libido & Thanatos. Libido=life instinct that manifests itself as sexual
motives & Thanatos=death instinct/wish which manifests itself in aggression & destructiveness
life instincts. (NB., Iceberg analogy.)
Personality
 Id: Sometimes referred to as pleasure principle=1st part of personality to develop, instinctive part
of personality. I will eat the whole packet of chocolate biscuits in one go.
 Ego: Or reality principle, 2nd part of personality to develop, logical & rational part of personality,
balances the demands of the Id & superego, acts as a de facto ‘referee’ between demands to
satisfy I & demands to satisfy superego. ‘I will eat only 4 chocolate biscuits in one sitting.
 Superego: Or morality principle. Last part of personality to develop (I.e., last to develop in 1st 5
years of childhood). The conscience or moral part of personality that is heavily influenced by
society’s rules & our parents’ values
Psychodynamic Approach:
Key terms & definitions (continued)
Psychosexual stages of development
 Psychosexual stages of development (OAPLG): The personality develops
through psychosexual stages that occur in order:
 Oral 0-1,
 Anal 2-3,
 Phallic 3-6,
 Latent 7-11,
 Genital 12-18.
 At each stage pleasure (libido) centres around specific parts of the body
(the erogenous zones):
 oral=mouth,
 anal=anus,
 phallic=genitals,
 latent=libido is dormant so no area of fixation,
 genital=genitals
Psychodynamic Approach:
Key terms & definitions (continued)
 Fixation: This is when instead of moving on to the next psychosexual stage, a
psychosexual stage is not fully resolved; the libido becomes focused – or fixated – on
the object of the previous stage, e.g., if you still suck your thumb or bite your nails you
may be fixated on the oral stage.
Fixation takes 2 forms: frustration &
overindulgence. Frustration=when needs are not meet; overindulgence=where needs
are met too much so the child does not move on: both can cause the libido to become
fixated. If fixation occurs then as an adult an individual may gain satisfaction from
the stage fixated in.
 Defence mechanisms: These are methods of protecting the ego when there is
conflict between the demands of the Id & the superego. We use defence
mechanisms to protect ourselves from painful, frightening or guilty feelings. If we
persistently use defence mechanisms we can lose touch with reality. There are a
variety of defence mechanisms:
 Displacement,
 Denial,
 Projection,
 Repression or Motivated Forgetting,
 Sublimation,
 Regression,
 Reaction formation
Psychodynamic Approach:
Key terms & definitions (continued)
 Catharsis: This is the safe release of mental energy, venting mental pressure in a
safe way, e.g., when angry doing lots of exercise to release anger. Catharsis is
needed because Freud saw human emotions & instincts in terms of a Hydraulic
Model.
 The Hydraulic Model refers to Freud’s notion that the mind operates like a hydraulic
machine, emotions & instincts, if there are not expressed can become pent up, leading to a
build up of psychic energy or mental pressure/tension, which, if not released or discharged,
can cause mental health problems. Catharsis is necessary to release this pent up emotion
in a safe way; psychoanalysis provides a safe environment for catharsis to occur.
 Oedipus/Electra Complex: This refers to the way gender identity occurs, Oedipus
complex for boys, Electra complex for girls. For boys – awareness of penis - ‘sexual’
feelings for mother, competes with father for attention of mother, fears father as a
rival (suffers castration anxiety as notices girls have no penis), represses love for
mother & identifies with father to resolve conflict & castration anxiety. The Electra
complex – for girls, daughter notices she has no penis (penis envy), attaches feelings
to father (who has penis), blames mother for her castration so fears her, substitutes
desire for penis for desire for baby – represses love for father & identifies with
mother. (NB., daughter does not fear castration as she has already been castrated;
as she has no sense of castration anxiety her identification with mother not so great
as boys identification with father.)
Psychosexual development
 Oral stage: the mouth is the focus of pleasure: fixation = orally sadistic or orally
erotic.
 Anal stage: toilet training brings focus of pleasure on the anus: fixation= anally
expulsive – if parents are too lenient & child gets pleasure from making a mess;
anally retentive – child gains pleasure from holding back.
 Phallic stage: the erogenous zone or focus of pleasure is centred on the genitals:
fixation=overly careful or reckless, vain, self-obsessed, arrogant.
 Latency stage: a resting period, libido is not fixated on any centre of pleasure, no
strong erogenous zone, no repression of desire, children form same-sex
friendships & focus on school & sport.
 Genital stage: starts with puberty, libido focuses again on genitals, pleasure
again centred around genitals. Formation of heterosexual relationships &
friendships; if there is little libido energy being taken up by unresolved
unconscious conflicts from previous stages, then there is enough mental
‘energy’ for ‘normal/healthy’ relationships to be formed in this stage. If an
individual is fixated in the phallic stage in particular, difficulties with
relationships due to repression & other defence mechanisms may ensue.
Freud’s explanation of gender development
 The Oedipus Complex: See definition slide for more.
 The Oedipus complex stems from a boy’s natural love for his mother, but as the libido is
focused on the genitals this love becomes sexual.
 Freud argued that the father presents a barrier to the boy’s feelings towards his mother. As
the father is ‘getting in the way’ the son feels resentment towards his father; n.b., all this
happens at an unconscious level!
 Castration anxiety occurs at this stage because boys notice that women don’t have a penis;
this then translates to a fear that the father may castrate the son if the father finds out that
he wants his mother all to himself. Castration anxiety is greater than the desire to possess
the mother, so this desire is repressed.
 This conflict has to be resolved. It is the role of the ego to do this.
 The ego satisfies the demands of the Id (to possess the mother) & resolves castration anxiety
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by strongly identifying with the father.
The son identifies with the father by adopting the father’s values, attitudes & beliefs &
mirroring the father’s approach to social rules & norms.
This process of identification with the father leads to the development of the superego
(morality principle); the son’s moral outlook/code reflects that of the father.
The son ‘learns’ to become male by identifying with the father & in some ways becoming a
younger version of him.
This also satisfies the demands of the Id, as by becoming like the father the son can also
possess the mother, metaphorically, in some ways, without fear of castration, due to the
identification & bonding with the father. NB., much of the evidence & support for the Oedipus
complex theory comes from the case study of Little Hans (1909).
Freud’s explanation of gender development
 The Electra Complex:
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Girls learn their gender roles/behaviour through identification with their mothers; however, Freud was far
more vague about how this occurs in females.
Girls, when they discover that women do not have a penis (in the phallic stage), they blame their mothers
for the ‘castration’ & so fear their mothers, but they also develop penis envy.
Penis envy leads to the desire for a penis substitute – a child – which the father can provide, but she sees
her mother as a rival for her father’s affections.
The daughter identifies with her mother & learns her gender role because this will enable her to possess
her father & gain a penis substitute (nb., babies & penises are symbols of social power).
However, Freud believed that this process is never fully resolved for girls, their identification with their
mothers is not as strong as that of boys with their fathers (due to strong sense of castration anxiety for
boys, girls have already been castrated).
Eventually girls learn to repress their love for their fathers & identify more closely with their mothers &
sublimate or redirect their sexual desire in a more socially acceptable way.
 The Resolution of the Oedipus & Electra complex: Sexual desire directed towards the opposite
sex parent causes a great deal of unconscious conflict; to deal with this the ego employs
sublimation (a defence mechanism): it re-directs this sexual desire in a more socially acceptable
way. In the Latency stage these feelings are dormant & sexual energy is sublimated via school
activities etc. This sexual energy reappears in the Genital stage& the feelings the child once felt
towards the opposite sex parents are directed towards a more appropriate member of the
opposite sex, I.e., someone closer to their own age & not related! An unresolved Oedipus complex
may, for example, cause conflict with the same sex parent in later stages/life.
Evaluation of Freudian theory
Strengths
+ Freud provided a unique of studying human behaviour & used methods that gave novel
insights into the human unconscious, e.g., dream analysis, free association, Freudian
slips, which he tried to apply in a rigorous, scientific contextual way.
+ The concept of defence mechanisms seems to have strong face validity: e.g., people
often use denial about bad news. There is even some research support for it: Adams et
al. (1996) & reaction among homophobic men when watching homosexual pornography
– they become aroused watching it despite being on a conscious, outward level
homophobic.
+ The notion of the Id, ego & superego seems to have good face validity, it can explain
why we often seem to be ‘pulled’ in different directions & feel guilty about our desires.
+ It encompasses the influences of instinct (biology), logic (cognitive) & the influence of
other people (social), so is a comprehensive model of personality.
+ It does seem to be the case that children develop in stages & that early relationships
with our families are very important in affecting our development
+ There seems to be some evidence for the existence of personality traits linked to
the psychosexual stages, e.g., the anal personality: stubbornness, orderliness &
stinginess being more prominent in some people & associated with certain
prevailing attitudes regarding body functions & political views (O’Neill et al. 1992;
Maltby & Price, 1999)
+ The case study of Little Hans has been used as evidence for the Oedipus complex
& the need for a small boy to identify with his father.
+ Some research suggests that girls have later relationships with (or marry) males
like their father, & boys go on to have relationships (or marry) females like their
mother (Connor & Brown, 2007) – supporting the Oedipus complex & the Freudian
notion of identification.
Evaluation of Freudian theory
Weaknesses
 Freud’s methods, nevertheless, have been criticised for being subjective & having
little scientific credibility: they cannot be falsified, lack validity & reliability.
 Also, Freud relied heavily on case studies, which are unique personal histories so
are difficult to generalise from & difficult to repeat (so lack reliability).
 His sample, based on his clients (he was a psychiatrist), consisted mainly of upper
middle-class Viennese women, few men & only 2 children, whom he met only
briefly, so cannot be considered representative enough to base a whole theory of
human experience.
 The concept of defence mechanisms is difficult to study empirically because it is
difficult to test; they are unconscious responses & therefore difficult to measure, if
something is unconscious, by definition, it will be difficult to analyse. Furthermore,
they are responses to threatening or traumatic situations which are hard to
replicate in an artificial, controlled environment.
 Similarly, the notion of the Id, ego & superego are difficult to test empirically
because they are unconscious, abstract constructs/concepts.
Evaluation of Freudian theory
 Although his general ideas about child development might have some face
validity, his overemphasis on body-parts, libido & the ‘sexual’ nature of
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child’s development negate the validity of many aspects of his theory of child
development.
His notion of the Oedipus complex is not well-supported, e.g., the case study
of Little Hans is deeply flawed & is only one case study.
Moreover, children in single & gay parent families do not seem to have any
particular issues with gender development, as would be predicted by Freud’s
theory.
Although children in the Phallic stage (approx.3-7) are interested in their
genitals, they are generally aware of their own gender at an earlier stage
(Fagot & Leinback, 1993).
Castration anxiety & penis envy are obviously very difficult concepts to
investigate scientifically. (Why?)
Feminists take issue with Freud because his theory implies women are
inferior as they lack a penis & desire a penis substitute. Gender
development in girls is more vague than for boys in Freud’s theory. NB.,
Freud was a product of his time & not especially sexist for the era.
Comparisons of Psychodynamic, Biological &
Learning explanations of gender development
Feature
Psychodynamic
Biological
Learning
Methodology
Dream analysis, free
association, case studies
Genes, twin studies, scanning,
DNA & Hormones
Experiments/Observtions
Nature
Instincts (Id), unconscious &
development in stages: phallic
stage & libido, repression,
sublimation
Genes & hormones
Born blank slate – ignores inherited
characteristics: no nature
Nurture
Superego: morals, conscience
& gender behaviour from
parents & society
Experience & environment can
influence genes & hormones, but
generally gender is nature
All nurture, e.g., parents, school,
peers, society, role models.
Scientific
Not scientific, subjective,
difficult to prove scientifically
& measure empirically, cannot
be falsified.
Very scientific, easier to quantify,
operationalise & so measure
Experiments, so can isolate & control
variables, but human behaviour still
hard to measure quantifiably.
Changes over
time
Stages through to 18 but
gender development basically
fixed by end of Phallic stage –
1st 5 years
Development fixed at birth &
before, but hormonal changes
over time
Learning is continuous & lifelong
through reinforcement – so can
explain changes over time, by culture
& across generations (Why?)
Early years
1st 5 years, resolving conflicts
generated in Phallic stage very
important
Sex given at birth, but
environment can affect gender,
hormonal changes throughout
life
Early years important, lots of learning
takes place then
Parental
contribution
Child identifies with same sex
parent, values, behaviour etc.
Parents give genes 50% each
Parents usually main providers of
reinforcement & role models,
especially in early years.
Psychodynamic, Biological & Learning explanations of gender
development: similarities & differences (NB., sex refers to biological differences
between men & women; gender refers to psychological & social differences.)
Similarities
Differences
Bio
Similarities
Bio
Differences
Psychodynamic
Differences
- Psycho – mental processes,
bio is physiological
- Psycho concepts not
measurable; bio is scientific
- Psycho does not use animal,
bio does
- Psycho both nature and
nurture; Bio = nature
Learning
Differences
- Learning focuses entirely on
nurture; biological focuses
almost entirely on nature
- Gender; bio is genetic makeup,
learning is the environment
and role models
- Bio use case studies learning
does not
Psychodynamic
Similarities
Learning
Similarities
- use case studies, but in very
different ways, e.g., Little Hans, &
Money.
- allow some room for nurture
influencing nature (but only limited for
biological).
-
-
very scientific in their
approach, trying to
generate quantifiable data
both far more scientific in
their methodology, more
objective, less
interpretative, easier to
falsify
- Look at development of
behaviour according to
norms; behaviour desired by
society
- Concept of identification
- Neither look at brain or
hormones
- Psycho more nature; learning more
nurture
- Psycho quals; learning quants,
experiments and scientific
- Psycho not measurable; learning
measurable concepts
- psycho allows for bio (innate),
learning focus on after birth
All acknowledge the influence of parents on gender development, BUT in very different ways
Studies in detail: Can you describe &
evaluate:
The case study of
Little Hans
(1909): Freud.
AND:
Dibs: Personality
development in
play therapy
(1964)
The case study of Little Hans (1909)
Aim: To cure Hans’ phobia of horses; to
provide research support for Freud’s
Oedipus theory.
Description: Case study, incl. dream
analysis, free association & clinical
interview (carried out by Hans’ father,
Freud only saw Hans once or twice & his
therapeutic input was minimal).
 From the age of 3 Little Hans had
developed such an interest in his
penis, or ‘widdler’, that his mother
had threatened to cut it off.
 He had also developed a morbid fear
of horses and became scared to leave
the house. At this time Hans’ father
had stopped Little Hans getting into
his parents’ bed in the mornings.
 Over time Little Hans’ fear of horses
became limited to horses with black
harnesses, he also once reportedly
uttered, ‘Daddy don’t trot away from
me’
 Giraffe dream; little giraffe and a big
giraffe. The little giraffe crumpled and
the big giraffe called out when Hans
took the crumpled one. Hans sat on
the crumpled one.
Analysis: Really interpretation of themes in Little Hans’ case history.
 Fear of horses: Hans was repressing his desire to masturbate as
his parents had told him not to, so this was causing anxiety at
night-time. Hans’ obsession with penises had lead to a fear of
horses as they have big ones. Hans associated being told not to
‘put his finger’ to his penis with the white horse biting and
developed a castration complex
 Giraffe dream: Freud’s interpretation was that the little giraffe =
mother’s genitals, big giraffe = father’s penis, sitting on
=possession of mother
 After meeting with Freud Little Hans’ phobia of horses appeared
to improve; 2 significant dreams/fantasies: Little Hans has
several imagery children with his mother, where his father is the
grandfather; the other concerns a plumber visiting the house &
fitting him with a bigger ‘widdler’.
Conclusion: Freud interpreted Little Hans phobia of horses as an
expression of the Oedipus complex. Horses, especially those with
black harnesses, symbolised his father, who had a black moustache
& a bigger ‘widdler’ (horses are well-endowed).
Little Hans displaces his resentment & fear of his father (castration
anxiety) onto horses. Oedipus resentment towards his father grew
stronger when his father refused to let Little Hans into the parental
bed, denying free access to his mother. The unconscious conflict with
his father is happily resolved when Little Hans gets a big ‘widdler’ like
his father & marries his mother, with his father in the role of
grandfather. At the time of this resolution his fear of horses
disappears.
The case study of Little Hans (1909);
V – Lots of detail is generated by a case study such
Evaluation
as this, and often more detail means greater validity.
G - It was a case study based on one
child: therefore, not able to
generalise to all children.
R - Case studies, because of their
unique nature, are difficult to
replicate.
A - Freud assumed that the Oedipus
complex affected all children & that
everyone needs to resolve the
conflicts that arise in this phase;
displaced resentment & fear,
including phobias can affect lots of
people.
 Freud’s focus on the unconscious
has lead to psychoanalysis, a
humane & compassionate way o
dealing with many types of
clinical conditions.
 However, Little Hans’ father provided most of the
data, no information came from little Hans
directly; his father may not have been very
objective and much of the information gathered
involved a great deal of subjective interpretation.
 For example, assuming black harnesses
reminded Little Hans of his father’s moustache,
or that the phrase ‘Daddy don’t trot away from
me’ was really that significant
 Hans mother threatened to remove his ‘widdler’,
not his father, as is suggested by the Oedipus
complex
 Little Hans also been scared when he saw a
horse collapse in the street, and this incident (as
suggested by the Learning approach) might have
been the cause of horse phobia. Concepts such
as the unconscious & castration anxiety cannot
be scientifically tested.
E - Little Hans’ phobia was dealt with in a
compassionate, sympathetic way, he was ‘cured’
simply by encouraging him to talk about his dreams
& feelings.
AXLINE’S CASE STUDY OF DIBS (1964) –
Personality development in play therapy
A - Axline was a clinical psychologist who used play therapy to help Dibs.
Her aim was to help him fulfil his potential, interact with others and ‘unlock’ problems
D - Dibs’ school called Axline in because he appeared to have learning difficulties but school suspected he was
very bright.
 Main part of study was Axline’s story of her sessions with Dibs (including meeting his parents). Axline quotes
Dibs and gives great detail of the sessions
 5 year old Dibs lived with younger sister and parents (dad was scientist, before Dibs birth mum a surgeon).
They had not wanted children and found Dibs hard to deal with
 At home and school Dibs’ behaviour was difficult. He did not want to go home from school…did not interact
with other children, hid under desks, would not speak and would not join in with activities
 Axline soon discovered Dibs’s speech, reading and writing abilities were well above average
 Dibs attended one hour Play therapy sessions each week. He could play and speak freely (Axline did not
guide him – he made his own decisions)
 Dibs was observed in play therapy room containing a one-way mirror so other researchers could make notes
and tape-record sessions
 Axline tried to be objective by not interpreting what Dibs said
 Axline found out that his mother was constantly testing him – expecting him to get everything right. His father
seemed not to love him – told him not to be stupid, criticise him and locked him in his room
 In play therapy Dibs used dolls and soldiers to act out situations with his family. Showed hatred for his father
by burying a toy soldier he called ‘Papa’ in the sand
 Dibs talked a lot about not liking locked walls and doors – his father had locked him in his room
A - In the case study Axline does not relate it specifically to the psychodynamic
approach. However, it seems as if Dibs worked through his anger using play and
using symbols such as the ‘Papa’ soldier
 This links to Freud’s ideas about fixation and unconscious feelings which can be
released and understood through the use of symbols
 Dibs’s behaviour in school and at home before therapy could have come from
the id’s demands: because the superego had become over-controlling through
his parent’s expectations. The id’s desires had been repressed and needed to
be released.
 Axline’s strategy to allow Dibs to play freely allowed Dibs’s personality to guide
him, to get a better balance between id, ego and superego
C - The case study of Dibs shows how there can be problems if the three parts of
the personality are not balanced. It also shows that if problems are acted out, e.g.
through play therapy, they can be released and a balance achieved
Dibs gradually started to speak to his teacher and show interest in his peers. He
developed a better relationship with his father and when his IQ was tested he
scored 168 which is in the top 1% of the population.
Dibs Evaluation
G – limited due to being a case study
R - It is difficult to test for reliability – Axline was a participant observer so could
have affected Dibs’ play. It is therefore impossible to repeat using a different
therapist because Dibs would not be the same.
A - It is difficult to apply a specific theory to the study although there are links to
psychodynamic theory e.g. role of the unconscious and need to allow repressed
ideas into consciousness (catharsis). The Study is largely descriptive rather than
explanatory – a weakness when looking at the study as a way of building a body of
knowledge.
Play therapy has been developed as a treatment with children
V - Qualitative Data – rich and in-depth - Play therapy sessions were recorded and
observed, detailed notes taken by other researchers (so they are unaffected by
Axline). This makes the data more valid as it is likely to be more objective.
The case study involved several methods – Interviews (with mother and school),
observations (at school and with father) and in play therapy. Having more than one
source of information means data can be TRIANGULATED which is a way of testing
for validity (i.e. to see if the findings are similar from the different methods).
E – what did Axline consider?
1 Key issue from the
Psychodynamic approach
The effectiveness of
psychoanalysis OR
Early childhood
experience & sexual
orientation OR
Do dreams have
meaning OR
Key issues: Psychoanalytic therapies
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Psychoanalysis: events from our childhood,
especially traumatic events may be buried in
our unconscious, but they cause pressure to
build up (nb., the hydraulic model) which can
be manifested as mental illness.
Our egos often use defence mechanisms to
help
us
deal
with
unconscious
conflict/tension; however, this is only a short
term solution.
Psychoanalysis
can
help
patients
(sometimes referred to as analysands)
‘unlock’ unconscious feelings which are
causing pressure through dream analysis,
fee association, Freudian slips & clinical
interview. By bringing the problem to the
surface the patient can confront the issue &
resolve it. The psychoanalysis provides
catharsis: a safe therapeutic environment in
which past trauma can be remembered, reexperienced & worked through.
In psychoanalysis transference occurs,
where the patient transfers their feelings of
angst towards key figures in their lives onto
the therapist. Counter-transference may
also occur, where the therapist transfers
their own feelings onto the patient.
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See notes on Bachrach
et al. (1991); the
effectiveness of psychoanalysis has been criticised,
but there is good evidence to support its
effectiveness – but is it a placebo?
Should the focus be on the past, would it be better for
therapeutic purposes to focus on present & future?
Evidence form studies such as Brown & Harris
(1978), a study of clinical depression in adult women;
and Lemma-Wright (1995) Alex: a case study of
childhood trauma, shows that negative early
childhood experiences can have a profound effect on
later mental health. [See links to 2000 AS syllabus &
Psychodynamic approach.]
Psychoanalysis only works fro neurotic conditions, I.e.,
where the patient has some degree of insight about
their conditions, e.g., OCD, unipolar depression, not
for psychotic conditions, where the patient lacks any
insight about their condition, e.g., schizophrenia.
Concepts from the psychodynamic approach used in
psychoanalysis, such as the id, ego & superego, role
of unconscious & defence mechanisms etc., are
difficult to measure & investigate in a scientific way.
See also Axline (1964), Bachrach et al. (1991) &
Cramer (1997) above.
It is retrospective, past memories may not be
accurate.
Key issues: Do dreams have meaning?
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According to the psychodynamic approach dreams
are the ‘royal road to the unconscious’. Dreams are
often a reflection of our unconscious desires,
anxieties etc., they are an expression of wish
fulfilment.
The unconscious mind controls much of our
thinking & behaviour; the ego tries to control the
demands of the id through defence mechanisms,
such as repression; however, through dreams our
unconscious desires can often be expressed.
However, even in our dreams our egos still work to
protect our conscious minds from the unconscious
mind: we dream in symbols.
Manifest content: the literal content of the dream,
what happens in the dream.
Latent content: the underlying wishes contained in
the dream, or the underlying meaning of the dream,
which can be discovered by interpreting the
symbols used in the dream & reported in the
manifest content, e.g., trains going through tunnels!
3 further processes can occur in dreams:
displacement
(object/person
causing
distress/desire
is
replaced
by
another;
condensation (several aspects of a situation are
combined or condensed
into 1); secondary
elaboration (symbols used in dreams are made into
a narrative).
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This theory of dreaming can explain the recurring
nature of many dreams; we keep thinking about the
same unresolved desires/anxieties.
Dreams often do reflect our conscious worries &
desires, suggesting they relate to unconscious
desires.
Solms (2000) shows that damage to the limbic
system of the brain (linked to emotion & memory
processes) leads to the loss of 2 mental functions:
dreaming & wishing. This seems to suggest that
dreams are somehow linked to wishes.
However, there are alternative physiological
explanations for dreaming, e.g., activation synthesis
(Hobson & McCarley, 1978); Reverse Learning
theory (Crick & Mitchison, 1983) [see links with
2000 AS syllabus-Physiological approach &
powerpoint presentations].
We often dream about desires & anxieties in a very
literal, non-symbolic way.
Dreams are often completely random & bizarre.
The interpretation of dreams is very subjective, so
interpretations cannot be verified. Even Freud
himself famously wrote, ‘sometimes a cigar is just a
cigar’.
Key issues: early childhood experiences &
sexual orientation
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The Oedipus complex suggests that in the
phallic stage a male & female children resolve
their conflicts over expression of the libido with
the opposite sex parent by identifying with the
same sex parent.
If the Oedipus complex is resolved when
children reach the genital stage & they become
sexual again after the latency stage, when they
are with other boys & girls their libidos will be
expressed through ‘normal’ sexual orientation.
However, if the child becomes fixated in the
phallic stage, i.e., for whatever reason the
Oedipul conflict is not successfully resolved,
then later sexual orientation may not be
‘normal’.
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Evidence for the Oedipus complex is very limited &
based on subjective interpretation (Little Hans, 1909).
Evidence from single parent families does not show
increased rates of abnormal sexual orientation.
Malinwoski (1929) studied the Trobriand Islanders,
where boys are raised by their uncles, not their fathers,
and the uncles are responsible for enforcing discipline.
According to Freudian theory the boys should still go
through the same Oedipul issues, I.e., resenting their
fathers because of they prevent them having unlimited
access to their mothers & fearing castration. However,
the boys do have ‘normal’ sexual orientation and seem
to resent their uncles, suggesting the resentment
stems from being disciplined, not some unconscious
libido issues.
LeVay suggests that brain structural differences might
account for differences in sexual orientation.
It is probably true to say sexual orientation is due to a
complex mix of biological, psychological & social
factors.
Research Methods/How Science Works &
Practical: Case Studies
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Case studies: Much of Freud’s theories is based on research gathered from case studies.
Case studies are detailed studies of a unique individual, or small group of people who have had a unusual
experience or have unusual traits or qualities.
Case studies often involve a variety of techniques, e.g., clinical interviews, psychometric tests,
questionnaires, observations, experiments & Case Histories (where qualitative data in the form of the story
of the individual being studied is gathered). NB., psychodynamic case studies typically involve: clinical
interviews, Freudian/action slips, free/word association, dream & symbol analysis & psychoanalysis (I.e.,
Little Hans).
Triangulation is often a feature of case studies, where all the data from various research methods is pooled
to try & establish common themes & trends.
Case studies tend to gather a lot of qualitative data; Freud’s case studies only gathered qualitative data.
To improve the interpretation & analysis of qualitative data and, therefore, its validity, triangulation is often
used. This is where qualitative data from different sources is gathered & analysed for common themes &
trends.
Where common themes are found from different sources suggests reliability; if similar themes are
confirmed by different sources this also implies greater validity – the themes identified are more likely to be
valid or a genuine, true reflection of the participant or behaviour being studied. If common themes can be
shown to be valid & reliable through triangulation, this also suggests generalisability.
However, the nature of untriangulated qualitative data means that issues of interpretation & subjectivity
often negate the validity & reliability of such data, making it far less unscientific than quantitative data
which can be more easily objectively & statistically analysed.
Case Studies (Continued)
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Case studies are often the only means of
studying a rare event or person with a
unique experience, I.e., researchers cannot
deliberately
engineer
scenarios
on
individuals to see how they would react.
Case studies often generate a great deal of
qualitative, detailed data, so are arguably
highly valid.
The data frequently comes directly from the
persons concerned & often in their natural
surroundings – again making the data
generated more valid.
Psychodynamic Case Studies: they can be
used to help the patient (analysand), as well
a study them, e.g., Little Hans.
Freud
developed
special
methods/techniques
to
access
the
unconscious & to gather data from patients
in complex situations with difficult
psychological issues.
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Due to their unique nature, case studies cannot be
replicated which reduces their reliability.
There is a large amount of subjective interpretation
involved because of the qualitative nature of the data,
affecting validity to some extent & reliability: different
researchers may interpret the qualitative data
differently.
Also, as they are unique it is impossible to say if other
individuals in the same situation would behave in the
same way, i.e., they cannot be generalised.
Objectivity may be undermined because the
researcher often spends a lot of time with the subject
of the case study.
Psychodynamic Case Studies: The analyst has to do a
lot of interpretation (e.g., dream & symbol analysis) &
this interpretation could be highly subjective, not
scientific.
Concepts used in psychodynamic case studies, such
as the unconsciousness & defence mechanisms etc.
cannot be tested in a rigorous scientific manner.
Case Studies & Ethics:
 Confidentiality & privacy are particularly relevant with regard to case
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studies. (Personal details should only be used with permission; pseudonyms
should be used to protect anonymity.)
Masson (1989) has made specific criticisms of Freudian case studies.
The interpretation of the psychoanalyst, because of their perceived expert
power & salience in the patient’s life, can push the patient towards certain
values & goals that may not be their own: so the psychoanalysis may have
undue control, power & influence over the patient. (NB., respect for
patient’s autonomy?)
There appears to be a strong gender bias in Freud’s work, e.g., boys are
focused on far more than girls: girls have weaker identification with the
same sex parent & so have weaker moral development – according to
Freud. (NB., respect for all individuals, treating everyone with equal
respect.)
There is arguably an overemphasis on sexual matters, which is not only a
credibility issue (it stretches the credibility of Freud’s theories); it is also an
issue with regard to transference, where the patient may transfer feelings of
a sexual nature, or resentment etc., onto the analyst. This too can be
ethically sensitive.
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Correlational Designs
Correlation studies are studies where there is no IV & DV – 2 variables are measured against each other,
e.g., how extrovert you are & what type of social life you have (clearly you would have to operationalise the
variables carefully in order to measure & compare them).
It is not suggested that 1 variable causes the other, cause & effect relationships cannot be inferred, simply
that the variables are related. There is a relationship between the 2 variables but it cannot be inferred that 1
variable causes the other.
Correlation studies often rely on self-report data, using rating scales. Ratings scales generate ordinal data
(see later slides).
Correlation studies are not repeated measures, matched pairs, or independent measures designs (see
Social & Cognitive sections); they involve the same participant providing data for the two variables being
measured, e.g., personality type & type of social life.
Correlation designs are used to help establish if there are relationships between variables that might merit
further investigation.
There are 2 types of correlation (or relationship): positive & negative.
A positive correlation is where when 1 variables rises so does the other; e.g., as IQ rises so does income; the
longer psychoanalysis takes place, the better the outcome for the patient (Bachrach et al., 1991): of course
this does not mean that psychoanalysis is necessarily the cause of the better outcome, time might be the key
factor not the psychoanalysis itself – spontaneous recovery over time is a feature of some clinical conditions
(e.g., clinical depression).
A negative correlation is where as 1 variable rises, the other falls; e.g., as IQ rises the likelihood of suffering
from a mental disorder falls.
A perfect correlation gives a score of : a score 0.87 would be close to 1 so indicates a v.strong correlation or
relationship. One to establish the level of correlation is to gather the data for the 2 variables being compared
& out them into rank order, highest to lowest. If the highest scores for 1 variable match with the highest
scores for the other variable it is positive correlation; if the high scores for one variable match the lowest
scores for the other, it is negative correlation. A scattergraph is used to represent correlations graphically.
To establish if the level of correlation is statistically significant an inferential statistical will be used: for this
course it will be Spearman’s Rank or Spearman’s RHO at a level of significance of p<0.05.
Correlation Designs (Continued)
 In many cases there is little manipulation
of variables, with variables often
occurring naturally because the variables
being measured are of existing situations.
This means research is less contrived &
fewer controls are needed, making the
research more valid & realistic.
 Correlations simply show relationships
between variables, not cause & effect.
Scientific knowledge is usually based on
notions of causal connections. Whereas
it might be useful to know if relationships
exist, it is much more useful to know the
causes behind these relationships.
 Correlations can show relationships
between variables that might not be
expected, therefore, highlighting an are of
research that might not otherwise be
explored.
 There are still some validity issues with
correlation studies; usually at least one of
the variables being measured has to be
operationalised, e.g., personality or IQ.
How these variables are operationalised
is often quite artificial & contrived & so
less valid.
Longitudinal & Cross-sectional studies
 Longitudinal studies: these follow the same group of participants over a
long period of time, weeks, months or even years, employing a variety of
methods to study these individuals, e.g., experiments, surveys &
observations. ‘Child of our Time’ on BBC1 is a good example of a
longitudinal study.
 Cross-sectional studies: these are often regarded as the opposite of
longitudinal studies. The are measures taken at one moment in time
instead of over a prolonged period. A cross-section of the target
population is studied, as opposed to the same group of participants,
hence more than one group of participants is studied. For example, if
‘Child of our Time’ was a cross-sectional study, instead of waiting every
2-3 years to study the same group of children, infants, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12,
14 year olds etc. would be studied at the same time.
Longitudinal Studies
 There are very useful for studying the
developmental trends in children, or the
effects of particular variables over time,
e.g., media violence.
 As the research takes place over a
prolonged period it is very expensive &
time consuming & full conclusions can be
a long time in coming.
 As they use the same participants it
eliminates participant variables (variables
between the participants taking part) so
reducing bias.
 As the research takes place over a long
time participants may drop out, reducing
the sample size & making it less
representative & reliable.
 It also means the participants, as they
are the same group will have similar
experiences
and
cultural/social
influences, e.g., ‘Child of our Time’ all the
children are living in & going to school in
the UK being influenced by similar social
& cultural phenomena (excluding social
class & ethnicity).
 The researchers themselves may move
on & new researchers may have a
different
relationship
with
the
participants, possibly affecting the
results.
Cross-sectional studies
 Results & conclusions are much  As different participants are used participant variables
quicker in arriving, which has lots of
can affect results. E.g., in ‘Child of our Time’ if different
age ranges were to be studied at the same time, how
practical benefits, e.g., making the
things are taught, what is taught, parenting styles, social
study cheaper & easier to carry out.
 There are arguably more ethical
because research measures are only
being ‘imposed’ on the participants
once, rather than over a sustained
period.
 As the research takes place only once, 
drop rates will be low so reliability &
generalisability should remain high.
attitudes towards children etc., might all be factors
affecting development which could differ between the age
ranges, especially the greater the age ranges, e.g.,
between children raised in the 1970s/80s & children
raised in the late 1990s, 2000s. All these things could
affect their language skills & psychology development.
It is generally harder to control & eliminate confounding
variables between 2 or more groups of participants than it
is if studying the same group of participants over time,
e.g., if studying the same group of individuals it would be
easier to control for social class & leisure interests than if
studying 2 different groups at the same time, I.e., being
working class in the 1970s might be quite a different
experience to being working class now, similarly with
leisure interests.
Types of Data: nominal, ordinal, interval &
ratio
 The type of data used in research determines the type of inferential statistical used to
establish statistical significance.
 Nominal: The simplest form of data. Information, or data, is simply placed into categories &
you simply count how many participants fall into each category, e.g., how many males &
females; how many have passed their driving test or not; are aged 20-24, 25-30, 31-35 etc.,
held open a door for a stranger, did not, stopped at zebra crossing, did not etc.,
 Ordinal: this is where data is put into order, e.g., 1st, 2nd, 3rd etc., Likert scales are examples of
ordinal data, e.g., how do you rate the 6th form? very good, Good, Average, Poor, very poor.
Ordinal data can be used to put things into rank order, e.g., exam results or rating of a hotel or
restaurant. V.good, or A* would clearly be 1st, good or A 2nd, average or B 3rd etc. However,
putting things into rank order does not tell you what the intervals are between categories, I.e.,
they are not necessarily the same. E.g., good is better than poor – but is the gap between
‘V.good’ & ‘Good’ the same as the gap between ‘Poor’ & ‘Very poor’?
 Interval: This is data that is measured on a scale which has precise & equal intervals, e.g.,
temperature; knowing that today was 27c & yesterday was 24c is more accurate & precise
than knowing that today was very warm & yesterday was warm, or that today was hotter than
yesterday. Interval data conveys much more information than ordinal data.
 Ratio: This is information that has all the characteristics of interval data, plus it has a true 0
point (unlike temperature where it can be –6c etc.). There are no negative values with ratio
data, e.g., something cannot weigh –6grams.
Research Methods/How Science Works &
Practical: The Practical
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NB., you need to sampling methods for unit 2 as well as unit 1 (see Social Approach).
A study from the psychodynamic approach must be some form of correlation, using variables related to
this approach & using the Spearman RHO statistical test to test for significance; data must therefore be
ordinal and generated through self-report methods, e.g., questionnaires, interviews, likert scales.
Perhaps you could compare commitment to goals or high self-esteem with lower anxiety & use of
defence mechanisms; or individual characteristics associated with anality, e.g., lack of generosity
(careful, parsimony), orderliness & political views/attitudes (e.g., how traditional or right wing); anal;
traits & parental strictness/permissiveness; dreams/symbols in dreams & unconsciousness
wishes/anxieties (a dream diary will have to be carried out).
NB., you must ensure that the research follows BPS ethical guidelines. You should avoid topics &
questions that may be embarrassing, stressful or potentially distressing.
To generate useful statistical information a sample of at least 20 participants is needed.
Consider relevant background research to help you establish your aims & hypothesis.
Operationalise your variables; e.g., how are you going to operationalise/measure self-esteem (maybe a
scale relating to anxiety), or sense of commitment/purpose?
Pilot your questions first to ensure that you have operationalised your variables effectively
Research Methods/How Science Works &
Practical: The Practical
 Writing up the practical:
 Abstract: brief summary of whole study, including results & conclusion.
 Introduction: background research relevant to your study.
 Rationale, Aims & Hypothesis: reason for conducting the study, relating to introduction &
background research, what the study is going to do, what you expect to find & aims &
hypothesis.
 Method: the study design, participant details, sampling method, apparatus, procedure,
controls - what was actually done.
 Results: summary tables, rank order, scattergraph, results of inferential statistical
tests/Spearman RHO test. Is hypothesis supported or not?
 Conclusion: what the results mean, your interpretation of results, is the background research
supported or not? Was the study sufficiently valid, reliable, credible & generalisable?
 References: details of other studies cited in your research – to ensure no plagiarism.
 Appendices: all the other information necessary to complete your study, e.g., raw data,
examples of questionnaires used, questions asked, standardised instructions, debriefing
notes, letters sent to ask permission where necessary etc.
The Practical
 Correlation 2 self-rating questionnaires.
 Is there a relationship between parenting style &
personality traits.
 The more authoritarian (strict) the parenting, the more
anally retentive the adult
 See your “how science works” packs