CRJ 309 Youth and Crime
Thomas N. Davidson, JD
www.thinblueline.ws/students
Textbook
Siegel, L. J., & Welsh, B. C. (2012). Juvenile delinquency:
Theory, practice, and law (11th ed.). Belmont, CA:
Wadsworth.
Boys will be boys?
Over and over again, the degree to which we accept
violent or threatening behavior is dependent upon
either the age of the perpetrator or whether a domestic
relationship exists. A twelve-year-old who punches
and kicks another twelve-year-old at the park might be
dismissed as just “boys will be boys”. The frequent
incidence of spousal, child, and domestic abuse in the
United States has been well documented. What is the
natural consequence of this violence? Karl Menninger
once said, “What’s done to children, they will do to
society.”
Proverbs
Contrary to the many other opinions, I believe the Bible was intended to
instruct us in all areas of life. We do not find the concept of
compartmentalizing one’s life into secular and religious realms. God
has provided the principles for righteous living in all things (1 Peter 1:3).
Still, in our American Democratic-Republic form of government, the
government cannot dictate to us what to religion, if any, to follow. But,
that does not mean that God and the Bible's teachings cannot
influence our choices and decision making when confronting issues
and problems in the criminal justice setting. I challenge you to
incorporate faith in your learning experience anytime it is appropriate
to do so. Proverbs is an interesting book on the surface, but it is not just
another collection of ancient sayings. It is, rather, a collection of
inspired truths in memorable and vivid forms. Proverbs covers a wide
range of topics. There are proverbs concerning wealth, wisdom, friends,
family, work, and worldliness.
The Adolescent Dilemma
 1980 nearly 80% of juveniles under the age of 17 were
white, non-Hispanic.
 1980 about 18% were black, non-Hispanic.
 1980 about 11 % were Hispanic.
 2010 about 58% were white.
 2010 about 17% were black.
 2010 about 22% were Hispanic
 2010 about 3% were all other races.
Ego Identity
 Ego identity is formed when youths develop a full
sense of the self, combining how they see themselves
and how they fit with others.
Role diffusion
 Role diffusion occurs when people spread themselves
too thin, experience personal uncertainty, and place
themselves at the mercy of people who promise to give
them a sense of identity they cannot develop for
themselves. Example: Gangs.
 For a discussion on what factors increase the chances
of gang activity among juveniles got to:
http://www.lao.ca.gov/1995/050195_juv_crime/kkpart3
.aspx
At Risk Youth
 Young people extremely vulnerable t the negative
consequences of school failure, substance abuse, and
early sexuality.
Cynical & Preoccupied with
Material Acquisitions
By the time they reach 18, most young people have spent
more time in front of the TV than in the classroom.
They see thousands of depictions of rape, assault,
murder, theft, and other anti-social behaviors. They
also listen to hours of music with violent and sexual
content. Research indicates that kids who listen to
music with sexual content are more likely to engage in
precocious sex than those who don’t.
Each day in America:
 2 mothers die in childbirth
 4 children are killed by abuse or neglect
 5 children or teens commit suicide
 9 children or teens are killed by firearms
 32 die from accidents
 202 arrested for violent crimes
 377 arrested for drug crimes
 964 babies are born at low birthrate
 1,210 babies are born to teen mothers
Each day in America continued:
 1,240 public school students corporally punished
 2,060 babies born without health insurance
 2,175 children are confirmed as abused or neglected
 2,222 drop out of high school
 2,692 babies are born into poverty
 4,435 children are arrested
 4,498 babies are born to unwed mothers
 18,493 public school students are suspended from
school
Poor Education
 About 70% of all 4th graders cannot read at level
 About 90% of blacks
 About 80% of Latino
 About 80% of American Indian
 Black children are about 50% more likely to drop out
of school than white children; in part caused by poor
reading ability that leads to stress
What is Juvenile Delinquency?
Participation in illegal behavior by a minor who falls under a
statutory age limit:
IC 31-37-1-1 Delinquent child defined
Sec. 1. A child is a delinquent child if, before becoming eighteen (18) years of
age, the child commits a delinquent act described in this chapter.
As added by P.L.1-1997, SEC.20.
IC 31-37-1-2 Delinquent act
Sec. 2. A child commits a delinquent act if, before becoming eighteen (18)
years of age, the child commits an act that would be an offense if committed by
an adult, except an act committed by a person over which the juvenile court
lacks jurisdiction under IC 31-30-1.
As added by P.L.1-1997, SEC.20
Ind. Constitution on Juvenile
Delinquency
 Article IX, Section 2. The General Assembly shall
provide institutions for the correction and reformation
of juvenile offenders.
(History: As Amended November 6, 1984).
Chronic Delinquent Offenders
 Have been arrested four or more times
 Perpetuate the majority of serious juvenile crimes
 Do not “age out” of crime and continue criminal
behavior in adulthood
 About 6% of offenders
Aging-Out and Persistence
 Aging-out is the tendency for youths to reduce
criminal activity as they grow older.
 Persistence is the process by which offenders persist in
their delinquent careers instead of aging-out.
Historic Perspective of Childhood
 Paternalistic family is a family where the father is the final
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authority
Lower class children were expected to engage in adult roles as
soon as physically able to work or learn a trade
Children of nobility also entered adulthood early, but had
greater opportunity for education. Girls were likely to be
married off early in their teens.
Primogeniture was the right during the middle ages of 1st born
sons to inherit land and title. Male siblings had the option of the
military or clergy.
Dower system demanded that the family of a woman bestow
land, money, or property to the man who would marry her.
Swaddling was the practice of wrapping babies in cloth to restrict
their movements and make them easier to manage.
Historic Perspective of Childhood
 Poor laws (1535) allowed courts to appoint overseers
over neglected and destitute children and allowing
placement of these children in homes as servants
 Chancery courts created to oversee the lives of
highborn minors who were orphaned or could not care
for themselves
 Parens patriae means the power of the government to
act on behalf of the child similar to that of a parent
 Child savers (19th Century) formed to develop
programs and reforms.
Best Interest of the Child
Parens Patriae: A philosophical and legal viewpoint that
encourages the state to take control of wayward
children and provide care, custody, and treatment to
remedy delinquent behavior.
Status Offenses
Conduct is only illegal because the offender is under age.
 Smoking and drinking
 Skipping school
 Runaway
 Participating in sex
 Curfew
 Profanity
 Disobeying parents
 Truantcy
Part I Crimes
Serious crimes against property and people
 Murder
 Rape
 Burglary
 Arson
 Motor vehicle theft
 Theft
 Aggravated assult
Part II Crimes
All other crimes that are not Part I crimes
 Public intoxication
 Driving under the influence
 Littering
 Disorderly conduct, et cetera
 Drug use
What the data says
 More than 13.6 million arrests each year
 2.3 million are Part I crimes
 11 million are less serious Part II crimes
 Juveniles are arrested for approximately 15% of Part I
violent crimes and 24% Part I property crimes
 Kids 14-17 account for only 6% of population, but are
arrested for a disproportionate amount of crime.
 1.1 million juvenile arrests in 2009 for Part II offenses
 74,000 status offenses arrests in 2009
Time and Place
 Most delinquent acts occur in summer months of July
& August
 Large urban areas have largest violent offender rates
 Rural areas have lowest violent offender rates
 Western & southern states have consistently higher
rates of delinquency
Gender and Delinquency
 Males significantly more delinquent (about 4 to 1 for
violent crimes and 2 to 1 for property crimes)
 Girls more likely to runaway
 See Table 2.3 page 56.
Race and Delinquency
 There are about 41 million white and 9 million African
American youths from ages 5 to 17 (Ratio of 5 to 1)
 70% of juveniles arrested are white; 28% African
American (Ratio of 2.5 to 1)
 Disproportionate number of arrests between the races
 May be due to discrimination or that African American
youths have a greater chance of being arrested.
 Racial Threat Theory – valid?
 Racial Profiling
Causes of Delinquency
 Socioeconomic Status Theory
 Cognitive Behavior Theory
 Rational Choice Theory
 Trait Theory
 Biosocial Theory
 Psychological Theory
Motives for Violent Delinquent
Behavior
 Control – victim’s life
 Retribution – punish wrongdoer
 Deterrence – stop hostile or threatening acts
 Reputation – create self importance
Crime Prevention& Deterrence
Crime Prevention
Crime Deterrence
Likelihood
Desire
Ability
Desire
of being
caught
Opportunity
Gravity of harm if caught
Routine Activities Theory
 Capable Guardians
 Motivated Offenders
 Suitable Targets
Figure 3.1 page 84.
Social Factors Believed to affect
Delinquency
 Interpersonal interactions: family, peers, schools, jobs
 Community conditions: inner-city, poverty, decay
 Exposure to violence
 Social change: politics, mistrust, economic stress
 Low socioeconomic status: poverty creates incentive
 Racial disparity: poverty among minorities is higher
than that of whites
Theories
 Social Structure: delinquency (“D”) is function of place
in economic structure
 Social Process: D as result of interaction with
socialization elements
 Stratified Society: Grouping society into classes based
on the unequal distribution of resources
 Culture of Poverty: View that poor people form their
own values which sometimes clash with conventional
society
Theories
 Underclass: Group of poor whose members have little
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chance of upward mobility
Social Structure: D is result of socioeconomic conditions
and cultural values
Enculturated: The process learning what is accepted in a
culture
Social Disorganization: Links D to being locked out of
economic mainstream which cause anger
Cultural Deviance: Lower class culture develops in
disorganized areas whose beliefs are in conflict with
conventional norms
Theories
 Social Transmission: Norms and values passed down
from each generation
 Social Control: Ability of institutions to influence
social behavior
 Social Ecology: Law abiding behavior is result of social
rather than individual forces
 Transitional Neighborhood: Transition of population
& structure from middle class to poorer (White flight)
Theories
 Siege Mentality: Residents become suspicious of
authority and consider outside world as the enemy.
We see this when communities refuse to cooperate
with police even when the crimes are outrageous and
heinous
 Collective Efficacy: The ability of communities to
regulate behavior through influences of school and
family
 Street Efficacy: Using one’s wit to avoid violence and
feel safe
Theories
 Strain Theory: Suggests that most people share similar
values and goals. When people feel shutout they feel
frustrated and angry, a condition called strain
 General Strain Theory (GST): Multiple sources of
strain interact with a person’s traits and responses to
produce D
 Anomie: Normlessness produced by rapidly shifting
moral values. Personal goals cannot be achieved using
available means
Sources of Stress Causing Strain
 Failure to achieve positively valued goals
 Disjunction between expectations and achievements
 Removal of positively valued stimuli (loss of friends)
 Presentation of negative stimuli (child abuse)
Research that Supports GST
 People who think they have been treated unfairly
report high levels of anger & high levels of theft
 People who live in strain producing conditions are
more likely to commit anti-social acts
 People who believe that path to success is blocked are
more likely to engage in criminal activities
 Similar results in foreign countries (indicating not
cultural based outcomes).
Focal Concerns
Unique value system that defines lower-class culture.
Conformance to these focal concerns dominates life.
Promotes illegal or violent behavior. The need for
being seen as tough or the need for excitement,
trouble, smartness (streetwise & savvy), fate, and
personal autonomy (independent of authority figures).
D Subcultures
 Status Frustration: Culture conflict experienced by
lower-class youths because social conditions prevent
them from achieving success as defined by society
 Middle-class Measuring Rods: Standards used by
teachers & others to evaluate behavior-when poorer
kids do not meet standards they are subject to failure,
which brings about anger and frustration
 Reaction Formation: ψ Reaction that occurs when a
person does or says something that is the opposite of
what he really wants or is socially appropriate
Differential Opportunity
 View that poorer youths, which have limited
opportunities, join gangs and pursue criminal careers
as an alternative means to achieving success.
 Criminal gangs: Criminal goals
 Conflict gangs: Protect their own
 Retreatist gangs: Retreat and create fringe society;
often getting high, sex, and music is goal
Social Process
 Socialization: People learn to adopt the behaviors of
the community in which they live.
1. Family influence
2. School
3. Peers
4. Religion
Social Learning Theory
D is learned through close relationships with others;
asserts that children are born good and learn bad from
others
 Differential Association: Asserts that D is learned
within interpersonal groups and youths will become D
if violating the law is favorable to obeying the law
Principles of Differential Association
(DA)
 D behavior is learned
 Learning is a by-product of interaction
 Learning occurs within intimate groups
 Criminal techniques are learned
 Perceptions of legal code influence motives
 DA may vary in duration, frequency, priority, &
intensity
 D is an expression of needs & values, but not an excuse
Neutralization Theory (NT)
Subterranean values: The ability of youth to repress
social norms. Youths can drift back and force between
conventional and D norms
Neutralization Techniques
A set of attitudes that allow youths to negate moral
apprehension so that they may freely engage in D
behavior without regret
1. Deny responsibility
2. Deny injury (no one hurt, so not wrong)
3. Deny the victim (he had it coming)
4. Condemn the condemners (world, school, society is
corrupt)
5. Appeal to higher loyalties (Caught between being
loyal to peers and rules of society)
Social Control Theory (SCT)
All people have the potential to violate the law and that
society presents many opportunities for illegal activity.
Drugs, illicit sex, even theft offer exciting pastimes. Is
it fear of punishment that prevents offending behavior
(choice theory)? Obeying law is a function of success,
so we don’t disobey (structural theory)? Obedience is
because of contact with law-abiding parents and peers
(learning theory)? SCT argues that internal and
external forces control desire and passion. Proper
socialization renders us incapable of committing D
acts.
Social Reaction Theory (Labeling
Theory)
 Pygmalion effect. Tell someone they are bad,
injudicious, lazy, or unqualified (and they and those
around them) and the resulting reinforcement can
actually cause the outcome.
Symbolic Interaction
People communicate via gestures, signals, symbols, and
words that stand for something else. Ring on fourth
finger of left hand indicates that the person is married
for example.
Status Symbols
Possession, rank, or activity the indicates one’s social
prestige.
Stigmatized
Mark someone with disgrace or reproach; to characterize
or brand someone as disgraceful or disreputable.
Differential Labeling
Law is differentially applied; white collar criminals
ordinarily get lighter sentences than common burglars
for example. This is due to discretionary decision
making.
Identity
 Damaged identity-stigmatized
 Primary deviance-norm violations that little influence
on the actor and can be quickly forgotten. Minor
crimes that go unnoticed and therefore have little
influence on the person’s life.
 Secondary deviance-deviant acts that define the actor
and create a new identity. Crimes that come to the
attention of others who apply a negative label.
Labeling & Delinquency
 Pure deviants-engage in illegal acts and get caught
 Conformists-do not engage in delinquent acts
 Falsely accused-blamed for something they did not do
 Secret deviants-engage in illegal acts, but do not get
caught
Conflict Theory & Prevention
 Restorative justice- humanistic, non-punitive
strategies
 Shame-personal feelings we have when we fail to meet
personal standard or those of significant others
 Reintegrative shaming-allowing offenders to
understand their wrongdoing and shame themselves
 Restoration-using the system to heal the offender See
Exhibit 5.2 page 192.
Concept Summary
 Developmental theory
 Life-course theory
 Latent trait
 Propensity
 Trajectory theory
See Concept Summary 6.1 page 202
General Theory of Crime
Integrates social control theory with biosocial,
psychological, routine activities, and rational choice
theories. See Figure 6.2 page 215*/8
Pathways to crime
 Authority conflicts-early age defiance and authority
avoidance
 Covert pathway-begins with minor underhanded
behaviors and then leads to more serious theft and
fraud crimes
 Overt pathway- begins with minor aggression and
leads to fighting and violent crimes
See next slide
Figure 6.3 page 222
Adolescent-Limited & Life Course
Persistent
 Adolescent-limited-begins as youths end with early
adulthood.
 Life course persistent-continues well into adulthood
Gender & Delinquency
 Honor killing
 Masculinity hypothesis-women who commit crime
have similar traits as men
 Socialization differences
 Cognitive differences
 Personality differences
See next slide
Scope
 Female Juvenile Offender Court Referrals
 Known Female Homicide Offenders
 Female Juvenile Violent Offender Arrest Rates
 Trends
Female Violent Juvenile Crime
Court Referrals for Crimes Against Persons
 1985:
35,812 Female
 1990: 48,663 Female
 1995: 92,079 Female
 2000: 102,236 Female
 2003 112,489 Female
143,578 Male
195,365 Male
288,132 Male
267,110 Male
276,064 Male
Male referrals peaked in 1995 and began to drop off (they
rise and fall from year to year), while female referrals have
steadily increased.
Data source: National Center for Juvenile Justice. (2206) National Juvenile Court Data
Archive: Juvenile court case records 1985-2003.
Known Juvenile Homicide Offenders by Sex
2500
2000
1500
Male
Female
1000
500
0
1980
1985
1990
1995
2002
On average, annually, about 135 female juvenile offenders
were implicated in U.S. homicides. Male homicide
offenders peaked in 1994 and have declined. In 1980,
female homicide offenders represented 8.9% of the total. In
2002, they represented 10.2%.
Data Source: Snyder, H. & Sickmund, M. (2206). Juvenile Offenders and Victims: 2006
National Report. Chapter 3. Washington, D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency
Prevention.
Juvenile Arrest Rates Per 100K for
Violent Crime
900
800
700
600
500
Male
Female
400
300
200
100
0
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
2004
Data Source: National Center for Juvenile Justice (September 8, 2006).
Juvenile Arrest Rates by Offense, Sex, and race.
Trends

In 1980, Female Offenders accounted for 21% of the
violent juvenile crime rate.
 In 1995, Female Offenders accounted for 30.5% of the
violent juvenile crime rate.
 In, 2004 Female Offenders accounted for 38.3% of the
violent juvenile crime rate.
 Both the number of female and male offenders are down
from their peaks in the middle 1990s.
 The number of male offenders has reduced more
significantly than that of female offenders. Accordingly,
the female offenders’ percentage attribution to the crime
rate has risen.
 It is disputed whether this change is due changes in
arrest patterns or girl’s behaviors.
Profile
 Family
Fragmentation and Dysfunction
 Abuse and Exploitation
 Academic Failure
 Substance Abuse
 Teen Pregnancy
 Psychological Disturbance
Family Fragmentation & Dysfunction
 Female
offenders are more likely to come
from broken home and poor.
 Approximately 1/3 of violent offenders had
a parent who had previously been
incarcerated.
 Female offenders are more likely to come
from group or foster home.
Abuse and Exploitation
 70%
of violent female offenders were
victimized themselves.
 Adolescent females are 4 times more
likely to verbally and physically abused
than males.
 Females are more likely to victims of
sexual abuse.
 Family members and friends are most
likely perpetrators of abuse and
exploitation.
Academic Failure
 25%
of female delinquents had either
been placed in special classes or had to
repeat a grade.
 26% of female offenders have learning
disabilities.
 Nearly 50% of offenders had been
expelled or suspended from school at
some point.
Substance Abuse
 Over
60% of incarcerated female
offenders need substance abuse
treatment.
 Attempt to cope and self-medicine in
response to depression due to trauma and
abuse.
Teen Pregnancy
 The
percentage of mothers in the juvenile
offender population is more than double
than the national average of teen
pregnancies.
 High incidence attributed to high-risk
behaviors at an earlier age.
 For many, pregnancy guarantees a life of
poverty and reliance on government
assistance.
Psychological Disturbance
 Poor
self image
 Depression
 Mental disorders
 26% of female offenders reported a prior
suicide attempt as opposed to 4% of
males.
 30% of female offenders in custody
receive psychiatric treatment
Prevention
Violence prevention among female
adolescents must be addressed at all
levels of care, from community-based
prevention to treatment and
incarceration. Programming must be
restructured to the unique needs of
females.
Prevention
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
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Implement gender based social skill training.
Address mental health and substance abuse
needs.
Provide academic support.
Encourage peer mediation for conflict resolution.
Involve positive adult role models.
Reproductive health and teenage parenting
training.