Social Process Theories for
Delinquency
Historical Background
• These theories reached their zenith in the
1960’s
• Self-report studies were revealing that crime
was not limited to lower class
• It became necessary to develop a theory that
could account for middle class crime as
well.
General Assumptions
• Begin with the assumption that anyone is capable
of committing a crime.
• Argue that delinquency can be explained by the
nature of socialization experiences of individuals
• Hence, they tend to focus on the immediate social
milieu of the individual--e.g., family, peer group,
etc.
• As such they focus on the process of becoming
delinquent
Types of Social Process Theories
• Two broad types of process theories:
– Social Learning Theories
– Social Control Theories
Social Process Theories I:
Social Learning Theories
Social Learning Theories
• General Features
– Children are not born with a tendency to want
to do bad
– Delinquency is a function of learning the
norms, values and behaviors associated with
delinquency
– Without opportunities to learn the values and
techniques associated with delinquency,
individuals would not become delinquent
Differential Association Theory
• Developed by Edwin Sutherland
• The theory:
Edwin Sutherland
– Criminal behavior is learned in interaction with other persons
– Principle part of learning takes place in intimate personal groups
– Learning includes: techniques of committing the crime and the
drives, values and motives
– Direction of drives and motives determined by relative
“definitions” (influences) favorable or unfavorable to law
violation
– One becomes delinquent because of excess definitions favorable
to violating the law
– Differential associations vary in frequency, duration, priority,
and intensity.
– Process of learning delinquency involves same process as any
other learning
Differential Reinforcement
Theory
• Developed by Ron Akers
• Represents a synthesis between differential
association and operant conditioning
• The theory:
Ron Akers
– Behavior is reinforced with positive rewards
– Rewards are given and evaluated in interaction
with significant others
– Hence, the kinds of behavior that are reinforced
depend on one’s differential associations
Drift and Neutralization Theory
Gresham Sykes
• The Drift Hypothesis
– Delinquents do not strictly adhere to delinquent cultural values, but
are affected by both criminal and conventional values
– Hence, delinquents find themselves in “drift” between the two sets
of values
– Subculture of delinquency provides the delinquent with a
vocabulary to neutralize the demands of conventional society
• Techniques of Neutralization
–
–
–
–
–
Denial of responsibility
Denial of injury
Denial of victim
Condemnation of condemner
Appeal to higher loyalties
Social Process Theories II:
Social Control Theories
General Assumptions
• Human beings are predisposed toward maximizing
self-interest
• Hence, everyone has the capacity to commit crime
• Most people don’t commit crime because of
constraining influences
• Hence, what is to be explained is not “Why do
some people engage in delinquency?” but “Why
do most people not engage in delinquency?”
Containment Theory
• Developed by Walter Reckless
• The Theory
– “Pressures” and “pulls” toward delinquency are
everywhere
– Counteracting these pressures and pulls are
“containments” of which there are two types:
Walter Reckless
• outer containments--structural buffers, such as
intact family, positive discipline, etc.
• inner containments--internalized values, high
frustration tolerance, etc.
– Reckless identified a positive self concept as the
critical containment insulating against
delinquency.
Social Bond Theory
• Developed by Travis Hirschi
• The Theory:
– Assumes that all people have the capacity to be
delinquent
– Preventing most people from engaging in
delinquency is a “bonding” to conventional
society
– Hirschi identifies 4 elements to the social bond
(next slide)
The Social Bond
Elements of the Social Bond
Conformity
Attachment
Emotional Attachment to
significant others
Commitment
Involvement
Belief
Efforts and Energies
expended toward conventional goals
Keeping busy at
conventional activities
Cognitive affirmation of
conventional values
Delinquency
Attachment
Emotional Attachment to
significant others
Commitment
Involvement
Belief
Efforts and Energies
expended toward conventional goals
Keeping busy at
conventional activities
Cognitive affirmation of
conventional values