It’s the Metermeter: Meter Notes
Meter and foot:
Meter: pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables in a line of poetry
Foot: specific amount of syllables, meant to measure meter
A poem will usually stay with one foot pattern for each line of a poem, but they may
differ it for an effect on reader.
They are used according to the following prefixes:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Monometer- One
Dimeter- Two
Trimeter- Three
Tetrameter- Four
Pentameter- Five
Hexameter- Six
Heptameter- Seven
Octameter- Eight
Meters:
There are many meters, but in English they aggregate around two general approaches,
In accentual/syllabic, each stress occurs in a poetic foot. And, in English, poetic feet are limited to
six: iamb; trochee; spondee; dactyl; anapest; and pyrrhic. (The last is sometimes disputed.)
1. Iamb -- one unaccented or weakly accented syllable followed
by one strong accent
Examples:
Impossible
(two iambs in one word, light stress on first and third syllables, heavy stress on
2nd and 4th.
My head was hot
Two iambs in four words,
Heavier on second and fourth.
Switch the accents to check if it makes sense
The rain in West Virginia
Three iambs
Common Usages:
The most common usages of the iamb fall into iambic trimeter, iambic
tetrameter and, most common, iambic pentameter, the last as familiar to
Shakespeare as to Robert Frost or Frederick Turner.
Effects:
Iambs are meant to mimic the usual rate of speech, as well as heart beats. So,
the purposes and effects are clear to the poets who use them.
Love songs, odes, and monologues are generally written in iambic meter.
2. Trochee -- one strong accent followed by one weak or
unaccented syllable
Examples:
dreadful -- one trochee in one word
helpless -- one trochee in one word
Giaccometti -- two trochees in one proper name
Common Usages:
The trochee is more often used as a substitute foot (or an exception) in an iambic line
than by itself, though poems have been written in trochaic trimeter, tetrameter and
pentameter
Effect:
Trochaic meter is the mirror image of iambic, and also sounds somewhat natural,
though more urgent as the initial stresses hit hard. Rap, marching cadences, and many
nursery rhymes often use trochaic meter.
3. Anapest -- two weakly accented syllables followed by one
strong stress.
Examples:
at the time of the President's lunch
(three anapests in seven words)
Sarah Jones is a woman who leads with her word
(Four anapests in ten words.
Gabby Hayes is a figure from radio's past
(four anapests, eight words,
a selection of bottles was broken last night
(four anapests, eight words)
Common Usages:
Anapests have often been used by narrative poets, such as Tennyson. Anapests are most often
used as foot substitutions in iambic lines.
Effects:
They can add a songlike effect to any work (see Dr. Seuss). Limericks, most of Dr. Seuss’s poems
(and other children’s poetry), and many songs tend use anapestic meter.
4. Dactyl -- one strong stress, followed by two weakly accented
or unaccented syllables
Examples:
See in the dark what the officer's doing there
(three dactyls, eight words)
Helpless I was as the rain in Virginia fell down on my head as I
walked in the forest where Alfred was eating his apples and oranges and
Mary was picking the fleas from her daughter and Georgie the poodle was
messing the carpet and Marty the carpenter fell from his ladder and
flattened a squirrel whose blood ran all over and....
Common Usage:
Dactyls favor Greek, not English, at least without substantial variation. Dactylic meter is rare, as it nearly always slips into
anapestic meter. The Iliad and Odyssey were originally written in dactylic hexameter.
Effect:
Foot substitution, such as a strong iamb, may be the only way to keep yourself from falling off a cliff
with this meter. Dactyls as foot substitutions in iambic lines are also fairly common.
5. Spondee -- two hard stresses in successive syllables
Examples:
Drop dead!
Bite this!
However, bite me would be a trochee.
Common Usage:
Generally verse is not written in spondees, though one could:
Drop dead!
Bite this!
No kiss!
Spondaic monometer?
Effect:
Is this clear enough? There is a hard effect gained when a poet uses one of these.
http://www.learningassistance.com/2006/january/mnemonics.html
Putting it Together
Adapted from Victor J Andrew High School
Read the poem out loud and see if you notice a particular rhythm in your first reading.
1. Count the number of syllables in each line, and write that number at the end of the line. Do
you see a pattern in the number of syllables?
2. Put an accent mark (/) over any syllables that absolutely have to be stressed. The way you can
figure this out is by trying to say the word several times, each time exaggerating a different
syllable. ("AR-tist" or "ar-TIST") (One way will sound much better). You can look words up in
the dictionary if you need to.
3. Put a "u" over the unstressed syllables.
4. See if the poem is iambic (u/), or sets of one unstressed syllable with one stressed ("taDAH!"). If it is, see if you can put in all of the other stress and unstress marks.
5. Once you see a pattern (for example, unstressed, unstressed, stressed; unstressed,
unstressed, stressed . . . ), mark a vertical line between each unit of the pattern. Those are
your "feet."
6. Read the poem aloud again, this time really accentuating the words you have marked as
"stressed." Does it sound right?
7. Once you're finished with that, see whether each foot in the the poem is a(n): iamb
(unstressed-stressed u/), trochee (stressed-unstressed /u), anapest (unstressed-unstressedstressed uu/), dactyl (stressed-unstressed-unstressed /uu), spondee (stressed-stressed //) or
pyrrhic (unstressed-unstressed uu).
8. Count how many feet each line has. It will probably be one of these: Monometer (one foot),
Dimeter (two feet), Trimeter (three feet), Tetrameter (four feet), Pentameter (five feet), or
Hexameter (six feet).
9. Put the foot name as an adjective first and the number of feet as a noun second, and there you
go! ("iambic pentameter," "dactylic hexameter," "trochaic tetrameter," etc.)
Scansion Tips
● Read the line aloud and over-emphasize the syllables that seem to be stressed.
○ If it sounds very wrong, it probably is wrong. If, with the over-emphasis, it
sounds like it might work, it’s probably right.
○ If you have a good ear, read the line normally and listen for rises in volume
in your voice (or have someone else read the line and listen for where they
put the stress).
● Prepositions (in, of, at, on, etc.) and conjunctions (and, that, since, etc.) are
usually unstressed
● Remember, stress is always relative.
Form
Use of stanzas
Poetry is not read by just four lines. This misconception is possibly because of the popularity of the four line stanza,
particularly in the ballad form.
However, from your study of poetry, you will have noticed that many different types of stanza are used.
There are many different lengths of stanza including
1.
Couplets (2 lines)
2.
Quatrains (4 lines)
3.
Sestets (6 lines)
4.
Octaves (8 lines)
Now Why Group These That Way? Stanza Critical Thinking:
●
If a poem consists of a series of quatrains but finishes with a couplet, you should question why. What effect
does the short couplet have set against the quatrains?
●
If the number of lines in each stanza varies, what does that tell you about the content of each stanza? Are
short stanzas less important or more focused?
●
Sometimes a poet may write a sentence which is divided into more than one stanza. If that happens,
then why has the poet used the stanza to divide up the sentence? What effect does this create?
●
Why has the poet divided the poem into different stanzas? What is contained in each stanza?
●
What occurs between stanzas? Do the poet?s ideas seem to jump?
●
Is an image developed in each stanza?
Between the Lines
Varied Punctuation
Be careful about looking at a poem’s punctuation. Here’s why:
Take a look at William Blake’s tribute to the ferocious tiger (MP, p.143):
Tyger! Tyger! burning bright In the forests of the night, What immortal hand or eye Could frame thy
fearful symmetry?
Punctuation Clues the Reader about Author Ideas
The punctuation in the poem is not so regular — it licenses no pause between “bright” and “In” or “eye”
and “Could.” The stanza’s meter and punctuation play out a tension in framing that predicts the unraveling
of the subject at the poem’s close. Regularity has been overthrown — but we had a sense that might
happen, just by paying attention to the irregular punctuation.
Stop and Flow
●
●
End-stopped
○
If the end of a line coincides with the end of a sentence or clause
○
if the line gives us a sense of completion
Enjambment
○
Clauses run on past the ends of lines.
○
We rush on to the next line to make sense of what we’re reading
Here’s an example from John Milton’s Paradise Lost (MP, p. 107):
Anon out of the earth a fabric huge Rose like an exhalation, with the sound Of dulcet symphonies and
voices sweet, Built like a temple, where pilasters round Were set, and Doric pillars overlaid With golden
architrave . . .
The spill of description over the ends of lines is almost constant here — only the third line is end-stopped.
And enjambment is entirely appropriate, considering what’s being described: the emergence of a palace,
Pandemonium, from the dreary grounds of Hell. The “ascending pile” is bursting forth from the ground.
No WONDER description bursts the boundaries of line length (note, though, that those lines are in strict
pentameter).
●
Enjambment and End Stops clue into rate of speech and imagery.
Common Forms
Ballad:
The ballad is a traditional form of poetry, which now takes many forms. The ballad develops a dramatic story.
There are different types of ballad: broadside, literary and traditional.
It is not important for you to know the differences between these genres: simply be aware that they exist. All three
forms of ballad are written in song form.
Elegy:
The elegy is a poem written to mourn the death of a person. Something which resembles this style is calledelegaic.
Lyric:
A lyric or lyrical poem is a short poem which explores or expresses a state of feeling rather than narrates an event.
The phrase lyric suggests that the lines could be set to music, as with the lyrics of a song, but is not necessarily the
case.
Narrative:
Narrative poetry, as the name suggests, is a poem where the poet describes an event or series of events. The poet
may take on the role of a character in the story (1st person) or adopt the voice of the narrator (3rd person).
Ode:
The ode is like the lyrical poem but more detailed more complex and longer. It explores an idea - whetherpolitical,
philosophical, intellectual, or personal - in detail.
Rap:
A modern style of poetry, often associated with heavy use of rhyme, word play and strong rhythm.
Shape poem:
Some poems are written in the shape of a particular object. Look carefully at the poem and see whether the shape
poem resembles an image described in the poem. How has this influenced the way the poem is written?
Sonnet:
Two forms of sonnet are Petrarchan and Shakespearian. Both forms of sonnet were originally used to write love
poetry. However, both styles have been used for other purposes.
Both styles are extremely complex forms of poetry and require skilful use by the poets due to their strict rhyme
scheme. When reading sonnets,you should look carefully at how ideas develop or change between the different
sections of the poems.
Sound Notes
Sound devices are resources used by poets to convey and reinforce the meaning or
experience of poetry through the skillful use of sound.
After all, poets are trying to use a concentrated blend of sound and imagery to
create an emotional response. The words and their order should evoke images, and
the words themselves have sounds, which can reinforce or otherwise clarify those
images.
All in all, the poet is trying to get you, the reader, to sense a particular thing, and
the use of sound devices are some of the poet’s tools.
“Sound effects” in poetry: The Texture of Words
Movie soundtracks can make us tense, happy, or sad, depending on the way the music is
manipulated: poets do the same thing. Instead of orchestras, they use words. Consider the
different ways that poets can use sound to create an effect in the listener.
1. Onomatopoeia--direct imitation of a natural sound (hiss, bang, slither, choke; “black flak”)
Effect:
Poets will often use this devices to create a more realistic image in the reader’s
mind. It recreates the scene for the reader with sound effects.
2. Imitation of movement
a. Abrupt/sustained contrasts in types of consonants
plosives such as B,D,K, or P
Effect:
Strong attention getter
liquids and fricatives such as L,M,N,S,F
Effect:
Calming effect on the reader
b. Acceleration and impedance:
Effect:
clusters of unaccented syllables speed up the line
clusters of accented syllables slow it down.
c. High/low and open/closed contrasts:
“throw . . . slow” versus “swift . . . skims”)
For an example of the difference in feeling achieved by using different letters of the alphabet,
look at two ways of asking someone to stop making noise: "hush" and "shut up." In "hush" the
breathy 'h', the soft 'u' and the gentle 'sh' make for a very different feel and emotional color
than the words "shut up" with their abrupt mute endings.
Awareness of the felt and aural qualities of words is important to you as a poet because using
the physically right word reinforces your poem's meaning. "Sounds differ. Sounds matter," says
Mary Oliver.5
3. Imitation of music (euphony) or noise (cacophony): “lap me in soft Lydian airs / Married to
immortal verse” is euphonious; “grate on scrannel pipes of wretched straw” is
cacophonous.
Euphony
Harmony or beauty of sound that provides a pleasing effect to the ear,
usually sought-for in poetry for effect. It is achieved not only by the
selection of individual word-sounds, but also by their relationship in
the repetition, proximity, and flow of sound patterns.
Cacophony
Discordant sounds in the jarring juxtaposition of harsh letters or
syllables, sometimes inadvertent, but often deliberately used in poetry
for effect, as in the opening line of Fences:
Crawling, sprawling, breaching spokes of stone
Sidelight: What kind of consonants fit with cacophonous purposes?
When a line feels and sounds rough and coarse we say it has cacophony. Tongue twisters like
"Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers" would be an example of cacophony.
The Repetition of Sounds
Our ears notice and pay attention to repeating sounds. Repetition is a powerful musical
force in poetry both old and mew. Here are some types of repetition to use in your
poetry.
Degrees of emphasis (Strongest to softest)
1. Alliteration
Alliteration is the repetition of a consonant sound at several points within one or more
lines.
Example: “She's looking, looking for the Lamb, my Son.”
Common usages:
Because of alliteration’s memorable qualities, you will see it used in all kinds of places—
speeches, sermons, advertisements, sayings, and mottoes—as well as poetry. Here are
some things to keep in mind when using alliteration.
Effects:
• There are no rules about using it. Effective use depends on the poet’s ear. Pace it
carefully.
• Three repetitions of a sound often feel more natural than two, but you risk annoying
your reader with five or more repeats.
• Use alliteration as a sound effect, to link associated words, tighten a poem’s structure
and formalize language.
2. Consonance
Consonance is the repetition of consonant sounds at the beginning and in the middle of
words within a line or lines.
Example: "silence long endured, leap down from his lair,"
Effects:
● Similar to alliteration, but softer usage
3. Assonance
Assonance is the repetition of vowel sounds at several points within one or more lines.
Example: "till Truth untie the lie tied at the start."
Effects:
● Provides many opportunities to enhance the musicality of your poem.
● Similar, yet subtle effects of alliteration
Rhyme Time!
Rhyme is a correspondence of sounds in two or more words.
Example:
The thicket-ram, the Pesach blood declare
the lover We betook ourselves to spare
Pure rhyme (also called full, true, perfect rhyme):
The initial sounds differ, the rest of the word is identical
Examples:
hill/pill, heart/cart.
Effect:
● Pure rhymes at the end of lines give clarity and conciseness.
Slant rhyme (also called near, approximate, embryonic, half, imperfect, oblique, off, partial,
part, paraphone): inexact rhymes.
These, in turn, are broken into several groups:
Consonant rhymes:
The final consonant is the same, the vowels differ: bells/pulls.
Example:
Expects You: grieves, pines for the heart she's won.
She's waiting, waiting for the Word to stun
Assonant rhymes:
the vowels are the same, the final consonants differ:
Example:
gate/sake
Effect:
● The effect of using slant rhyme is to cause feelings of uneasiness and tension.
End rhyme:
rhyming words placed at the ends of successive lines.
End stopped: this type rhyme helps make the line feel crisp and like a unit.
Draws attention to the rhyming word and emphasizes its music and meaning.
Example:
silence long endured, leap down from his lair,
speak comfort to his bride, her burden share:
Enjambment. It de-emphasizes the line as a unit and gives a tripping, breathless,
rambling effect.
Example:
I run! Your Word made Flesh, your Mercy speeds
to soothe, to woo this bride, the lie outsmart,
as Flesh made Lamb takes on her wound and bleeds.
Internal rhyme:
Two or more rhyming words occurring in the same or nearby lines.
Common Forms:
Internal rhyme occurs in free verse as well in poems with rhyme and meter.
Example:
She's looking, looking for the Lamb, my Son.
The thicket-ram, the Pesach blood declare
Effect:
● To spread the poem’s music throughout the line, adding another layer of sound.
● Combined with meter, it adds melody to the beat.