Indian Removal
Kathryn H. Braund
Auburn University
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Jackson’s Message on
Indian Removal
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Indians able to “pursue happiness in
their own way”
characterized as “fair exchange”
will “save” the Indians
to go to a new land to better oneself is a
normal event
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Jackson’s Message on
Indian Removal
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end federal-state conflict
open up large tracts of land for “civilized
population”
national security
protect Indians from “power of the
states”
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Indian Removal Act,1830
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Pres. to set aside Indian territory on public
lands west of Miss. R.
Exchange districts there for land occupied by
Indians in the east
Grant tribes absolute ownership to new land
“forever”
treat with tribes for rearrangement of
boundaries to effect removal
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Indian Removal Act, 1830
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Property left behind by emigrating Indians to
be appraised and compensation paid
grant emigrants “aid and assistance” on
journey and first year in new country
protect emigrants from hostile western
Indians and other intruders
continue power exercised over tribes by
Trade and Intercourse Acts
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Southeastern Removal
Treaties (Civilized Tribes)
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1830: Removal Act
1830: Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek
(Choctaw)
1832: Treaty of Pontotoc (Chickasaw)
1832: Treaty of Payne’s Landing
(Seminole)
1832: Treaty of Washington (Creek)
1835: Treaty of New Echota (Cherokee)
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Removal Treaties
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U.S. employed questionable methods
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bribes
negotiated w/ non-authorized chiefs
Coercion
In theory voluntary; reality very different.
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Background (1829-1832)
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states extends jurisdiction over Choctaw
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destroy tribal sovereignty
ban assemblies
no right to vote, testify in court
squatters on Ind. land not prosecuted
Indians can’t mine gold (Georgia)
No hunting, fishing, or trapping (Alabama)
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Treaty of Dancing Rabbit
Creek, 1830
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First “land exchange” treaty under the
Removal Act
U. S. Commissioners bribe chiefs with
money and private reservations
Choctaw cede all land e. of Miss. R. (14
million acres) for 15 million in Ind. Terr.
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Choctaw Emigration
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Head west in fall 1830
no guides or support--very bad
experience
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freezing rain
disease
some flee to swamps to avoid removal
25% of tribe dies during process
Miss. “reservations” not upheld
Fed. gov’t drafts regulations for both
military and private contractors
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Chickasaw Indians
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1832: Removal Treaty
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sell their land for cash
to use proceeds to buy land in Ind. Terr.
from Choctaws
Choctaws not happy to have to give up
some of their territory
Purchase not worked out until 1836-37
Easier emigration due to regulations
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Alabama and the Creeks
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Alabama expands jurisdiction over
Creek Nation (1832)
Intruders pour into Creek lands--not
prosecuted
1832: Creeks cede territory east of
Miss. R.
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Creek Treaty of 1832
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Each Creek free to emigrate or not, as
they see fit
Allotments
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Each head of family allowed 320 acres of
private reserve
Chiefs get 640 acres (1 sq. mile)
6,557 family heads = 2,187,200 acres or
half the land owned by the tribe
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Allotments under 1832 Treaty
Continued…
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free to sell or stay
if stay 5 years, deed to be given
gov’t to keep out intruders for 5 years
gov’t to pay cost of emigration and support
emigrants for 1 year in the west, also give
rifle and ammo. and 1 blanket to each
family
feds. agree to pay Creek Nat’l debt up to
$100,000
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Treaty of 1832 Recap
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All Creek land divided into allotments to
be divided to heads of families
Heads of families can sell or stay
If sell and go west: gov’t support in the
west
overall-one of the most advantageous
treaties for an Indian tribe
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Allotments = Problems
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Fraud and Coercion
By 1834: est. 10,000 illegal settlers on
Creek lands
Feds. do attempt to drive off intruders
as required by treaty
Result: federal-state conflict
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Federal - State Conflict
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Hardiman Owen - assaults Indians
Owen attempts to kill marshal sent to
arrest him and is killed by soldier
Ala. grand jury indicts soldier for murder
Francis Scott Key
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U. S. won’t enforce treaty promises if state
drops charges and tries to halt speculation
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Frauds
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Reserves: 6,557 heads of family
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to sell: appear before agent w/witness, ID
yourself, describe property & receive pmt.
speculators: hire imposters to “sell” land
and real owners then driven off property
Scandal: of national proportions
launches federal investigation
1836: 2nd Creek War
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Second Creek War (1836)
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Murders and depredations by Creeks
around Columbus and Tuskegee
Result: Indians at war
 federal fraud investigation halted
 General Thomas S. Jesup ordered to
subdue Creeks and remove them by force
if necessary
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Creek “emigration”
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First Group
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800 “hostile” warriors put in manacles and chains
rest marched to Montgomery and put on boats
3000 left - 2400 reach Fort Gibson
Rest shipped out 1836-1837 under military
escort via various land and water routes
Various disasters: winter travel, disease,
explosion of steamboats
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Creek “Loyalty”
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Peace chiefs: ask for annuity pmts. to
help offset expense of emigration refused
Feds. demand that Creek warriors
assist in fight against Seminole to
receive annuity and/or be allowed to
retain allotments
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Menawa
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Seminole
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Btn. 1836 - 1843: approx. 4000 sent
west
Some Seminoles: captured and some
surrender and some fight on and avoid
removal
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THE CHEROKEES
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Worcester v. Georgia
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A victory?
Divisions
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Advocates of removal (Treaty Party) Major
Ridge, John Ridge, Elias Boudinot
Removal opponents incl. most Cherokees,
led by Chief John Ross
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Treaty of New Echota (1835)
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Ceded all Cherokee land east of the
Mississippi for $5 million
Cherokee have two years to sell
improvements and move
Pay relocation and one-year’s
subsistence expenses
Citizenship/land for those adverse
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Cherokee Opposition
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Chief John Ross wages public relations
and legal campaign against treaty
U.S. Senate ratifies treaty 1836
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Forced Removal
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U.S. Army sent to round up and deport
all Cherokee people when treaty
deadline arrives
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Military posts/camps established
Most walk
Land and water routes
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Cherokee Land Cessions
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Cherokee Removal Routes
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Those Who Remain
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Some flee to inaccessible places
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Some become “white people”
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Choctaw - Philadelphia
Cherokee - Eastern Band - Smoky Mts.
Poarch Creeks
Seminole
Weatherford and family
Some: “slaves”
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Emigration: A Brutal
Experience
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Choctaw: unprepared and under funded
Creeks (war in 1836)
Cherokee: Trail of Tears
Seminole: fight
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Removal-Discussion
Questions
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Were the assumptions about Indians
valid?
Was removal “ethnic cleansing”?
Was it constitutional?
Was it in the best American tradition?
What were the other options?
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Removal-Discussion
Questions
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Indians divided over the proper course.
Put yourself in their shoes. What do
you believe was the best option for
Indians in the 1830s?
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Removal-Discussion
Questions
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Wallace: “The U.S. acquired millions of
acres of fertile Southern land, which it
sold at little or no profit to speculators
and settlers, thereby in effect
subsidizing the expansion of the cotton
industry and the slave system along
with it.” Do you agree?
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Web Resources
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Choctaw Removal
Chickasaw Removal
Creek Removal
Cherokee Removal
Encyclopedia of Alabama
New Georgia Encyclopedia
Andrew Jackson (PBS/KCET)
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