Gender Inequality, Modernization
and Development in South and
Southeast Asia
Dr. Jennifer Jarman
National University of Singapore
Purpose
• This paper presents a justification for
extending the analysis of Gender Segregation
patterns to Large Developing Countries in Asia
• Some discussion of the theoretical issues in
this area
• Presentation of some material for one
country, Vietnam
Previous Research
• Has focused extensively on the experiences of
developed countries
• Lack of analysis of the experiences of
developing countries in the integration of
women into their economies
– Some exceptions (e.g. Anker, 1998; Chang, 2000)
– Some work on India, China, Japan, Hong Kong,
Korea, Malaysia, Fiji. South and SE Asia very
under-represented.
Labour Force Size and Segregation
Literature
Country
Labour Force
N
Segregation
Studies
Viet Nam
44.4 mill
0
Thailand
36.6
0
Bangladesh
74.3
0
Pakistan
56.2
1?
Sweden
4.9
12+
Denmark
2.9
12+
Finland
2.7
12+
Norway
2.5
12+
Source: for labour force n’s, World Bank, World
Development Indicators, 2007
Initiatives to Encourage Research on
Gendering in Developing Countries
• Initiatives: ILO project ‘Measuring
Segregation’, 1992.
• Gender Inequality in the Labour Market, A Manual on
Methodology, Janet Siltanen, Jennifer Jarman and R.M.
Blackburn
• Gender and Jobs, Sex Segregation of Occupations in the
World, Richard Anker
Development of the concept of
‘Problematic Segregation’
• With respect to Developed countries,
segregation has been seen as fundamental.
• The relationship of segregation to Inequality
has been assumed to be causal ever since
Sidney Webb first wrote about it in 1891.
Eliminating Segregation
• Thereafter, has been much development in the
arena of Employment Law and Employment
practices to limit employers from segregating
their workforces on the basis of gender.
• Key Actors in this transformative work:
– unions, women’s groups, the state and its various
departments (principally labour ministries, women’s
bureaus, equal opportunities commissions,
educational and vocational training institutions),
individual men and women who collectively make
decisions about their careers, families, education
levels.
ILO, Constitution, 1919
• Legal Starting Point for international legislative
protections
• Preamble: “Universal peace can only be
established if it is based upon social justice.”
• Article 41 of Constitution of ILO. 1919 laid down
– 'the principle that men and women should receive
equal remuneration for work of equal value’
Title VII, US Civil Rights Act
Section 703, 1964
• C) Labor Organization Practices
It shall be an unlawful employment practice for a labor
organization –
(1) To exclude or to expel from its membership, or otherwise
to discriminate against, any individual because of his
race, color, religion, sex, or national origin;
(2) To limit, segregate, or classify its membership or
applicants for membership, or to classify or fail or refuse
to refer for employment any individual in any way which
would limit such employment opportunities or otherwise
adversely affect his status as an employee or as an
applicant for employment, because of such individual’s
race, color, religion, sex or national origin;
Direct and Indirect Discrimination
• These have focused on two types of
discriminatory practices:
– Direct: treat a person differently based on their
gender; we do not hire women as Bouncers or on
the Docks
– Indirect: fair in form but not in outcome; you must
be 5’ 8” to be a police officer (average woman’s
height is 5’5”)
New Solutions to the Problem of
Segregated Labour Markets
• By the 1980s it has become clear that the job
of de-segregating labour forces has a problem
– Older workers who do not have time or resources
to retrain or restructure careers so as to break
down traditional gender barriers, whether they be
barriers for women or for men.
Logic
• These two legal examples indicate the main
direction of thinking about Segregation over
the past century
• Segregation – differences – are considered to
set the stage for serious gender inequalities in
pay, benefits, working conditions, and social
standing of the job.
1980s - Revaluing Segregation Patterns
• New policy measures designed to accept
Segregation, but to make sure that groups of
male workers and groups of female workers in
workplaces are remunerated equally.
– Comparable worth, pay equity, equal pay for work
of equal value
– These policies involve extensive employment
systems reviews to assess whether there are
differences in contract terms of groups of similarly
situated male and female workers
Identify the Causal Processes that
create Different but Equal societies
• In BJS (Blackburn et al., 2002) we argued that to understand the
relationship between Inequality and Segregation, three processes were
crucial
• (i) expansion of education
• (ii) change in the occupational structure (I would now argue decline of menial work in
Agriculture)
• (iii) making it easier for adult female women (esp. married with children) to participate
• These policies implicitly requires extensive participation EITHER of unions
through examination of collective bargaining agreements or Human
Resources departments and the State as arbiter.
• These require:
– A Strong (not failed or ineffective or inconsequential) State supporting the
Entrance of Women into the Formal Economy
– Legitimate and Strong Trade Union movement
– HR Departments (medium to large enterprises)
– Demand in the economy for Labour
Asian analysis
• Methodology: 4 case studies, 2 South Asian
(Bangladesh, Pakistan) and 2 Southeast Asian
(Thailand, Vietnam); how to theoretically locate
these countries in terms of type of state esp. re:
gender regimes
• Problem of data which is highly aggregated, this is
primarily a “concentration” or “pattern analysis”;
lack of a Vertical measure.
• Therefore, concentration or “pattern” analysis
• Data Sources: ILO labour force statistics
database, year 2000.
Comparative GDP, LF and %F
Country
GDP (Constant
2000 US $)
Labour Force
Labour Force %
Female
Viet Nam
52.6 bill
44.4 mill.
48
Thailand
173.2 bill
36.6 mill.
47
Bangladesh
69.6 bill
74.3 mill.
39
Pakistan
106.2 bill
56.2 mill.
19
Source: The World Bank Group, World Development Indicators.
Viet Nam
Overview
• In the developed countries, legal changes and
policy developments such as Title VII, or the Sex
Discrimination acts have been significant.
• In Communist countries, the pressing need for
labour for developmental purposes, has paved
the way for women to enter the formal economy.
– Theoretically, “Economy-centred” (Chang, 2000); but
“liberal” use of state to support expansion of labour
supply; anti-family due to Marxist influence; question
of depth of commitment to meaningful gender
equality.
Viet Nam
• Strong state support for women’s involvement in
formal economy since 1946 onwards
• Unionized, but all unions are “under leadership of
Communist Party”
• Corporatist model
• Demand for women’s labour due to extensive
involvement in wars.
–
–
–
–
Anti-colonial War 1946 – 54
Vietnam War 1959 – 1975
Invasion of Cambodia 1978 – 1979
Sinochina Invasion of Vietnam 1979 - 1979
Every Vietnamese, old and young, men and women, rich and
poor, whatever his or her social position, must become a
fighter struggling on the military, economic, political or
cultural front, for the implementation of this
watchword: Resistance by the entire people and in every
field.
In our patriotic emulation, we resist foreign
aggression while at the same time rebuilding the
country.
The first results of patriotic emulation will be the
following:
The entire people will have enough food and clothing,
The entire people will have learnt to read and write,
The
entire army will have enough food and armaments to
wipe out the invaders, and
The whole nation will be
completely re-unified and
independent.
Thus we shall have obtained: Independence for the nation;
Freedom for the citizens; and Happiness for the people.
Ho Chi Minh, Selected Writings, Appeal for Patriotic
Emulation, June 11, 1948, published by The Gioi Publishers).
Continued Emphasis on Women’s
Progress
• The process of struggle to contribute in all spheres of
economic and social life should be women’s process of
continuous growth. Let every woman advance… and
increase their capabilities. Therefore, it is necessary to
concentrate on training many more women cadres,
including economic management cadres, scientific and
technical cadres, educational, health and cultural cadres….
With their contributions and maturity, our nation’s women
will be able to assume and discharge heavier
responsibilities in leading organizations. This is the process
of achieving equality between men and women in reality
and in life.”
• Pham Van Dong, Chairman of the Council of Ministers, told the
opening session of the Women’s union congress in 1982,
Female Gross Enrolment Rate in Primary
Education Over Time (Source: The World Bank, Gender
Disaggregated Education, retrieved on 11 Feb 2008)
% of Female
120.0
100.0
1990
80.0
1995
60.0
2000
40.0
2005
20.0
0.0
1990
1995
2000
2005
Banglades
h
73.5
71.5
109.0
110.7
Pakistan
Vietnam
Thailand
44.3
47.7
57.3
75.1
102.9
111.2
103.5
91.3
96.1
86.3
92.3
94.6
Seats in Parliament held by Women year
2006 (% of total)
Seats in Parliament held by Women year 2006
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Pakistan
Series1
20.4
Banglade
Vietnam
sh
14.8
27.3
Country
Thailand
10.7
Source: Human Development Report 2006, Oxford University Press, c2006
VIETNAM TOTAL EMPLOYMENT BY ECONOMIC ACTIVITY 2000
Source: ILO, Url: http://laborsta.ilo.org/, Retrieved on 25 Feb 08
Occupation Order
H. Hotels and Restaurants
71%
70%
M. Education
69%
Q. Extra-territorial Organizations and Bodies
G. Wholesale and Retail Trade, Repair of Motor Vehicles, Motorcycles and Personal and
Household Goods
64%
P. Households with Employed Persons
61%
N. Health and Social Work
58%
J. Financial Intermediation
54%
51%
A. Agriculture, Hunting and Forestry
50%
D. Manufacturing
41%
O. Other Community, Social and Personal service activities
36%
K. Real Estate, Renting and Business Activities
C. Mining an Quarrying
31%
L. Public Administration and Defence, Compulsory Social Security
24%
B. Fishing
18%
E. Electricity, Gas and Water supply
17%
10%
I. Transport, Storage and Communications
9%
F. Construction
Men
Women
0
5000
Number of workers ('000)
10000
15000
20000
25000
30000
Agriculture
• The striking feature of this is the presence of a
very large, highly mixed occupational order –
Agriculture, Hunting and Forestry
• This feature has been observed elsewhere –
Anker, England – on large non-mechanized
farms both men’s and women’s labour is used
extensively
No “all-female” or “all-male” occs
• No really “all-female” areas or “all-male”
areas.
• Most female-dominated areas – Hotels and
Restaurants – 71% but have a significant mix
of men (29%).
• [This contrasts sharply with South Asia where
restaurants and “public eating” areas are
dominantly male].
Some Not Surprising Findings
• We see some typical patterns – Women as
Educators, women as maids, and health care
workers
• But also an interesting presence of women in
Extra-Terrestrial Bodies – (trade and
international organizations inc. NGOs) and in
Financial Institutions.
More Surprising Findings
• Strong presence of women in occupations that
are elsewhere sex-typed as male
• 31% in mining and quarrying
• 24% in security and defence (security
problems are a growing issue in the cities)
• Not insignificant in Fishing and in Construction
(heavy manual labour, and some of the most
dangerous occupations in the occupational
spectrum)
What do we know about these
women’s occupations?
Manual Coal Shovelling
Manual Lifting
Ho Chi Minh in mining community in
Quang Ninh province, 1965
Lady Mineworkers – Viet Nam
Surface coal
Vietnam Coal & Mining Co. women’s
team, Managed by Quarrying Co.
Explanations
• While there are strong ideological foundations for
a “woman’s place is in the home with first
responsibility for husband and family members”
due to the influence of Confucianism, here we
see three key influences:
– The need for women’s labour to build a communist
state
– 50 years of war producing a demographic structure
with a distinct female skew
– Corporatist state
Conclusions
• Despite the dominance of ideological
constructions throughout Asia which
construct a primary role for women as
mothers and wives, there are wide differences
in the way in which women participate in the
formal economy.
Theory in Relation to Viet Nam:
Strong state support for
women’s presence in
economy
Yes, historically but may be
declining somewhat now with
shift to capitalist economy
Strong trade union movement
Yes, but struggling with the
problem of shifting to a free
market & new bargaining
structures
Strong labour market demand
Yes, Viet Nam economy still
growing rapidly
Conclusions
• However, in relation to case of Viet Nam, in shift
to a “market economy” with a lesser presence of
the state, and with the demographic structure
moving back to a more “normal” structure after
the loss of so many men, what will happen to the
position of women?
• Will they maintain their advantage, or, as some
are suggesting be forced to return to the rural
areas as the public sector employment and the
smaller ventures they have been involved in
disappear.
Conclusions
• This paper would also like to suggest that there is
a need for some new directions in research on
Asian women which has for too long been
dominated by discussion of a few occupations:
Maids, Prostitutes, Factory Workers, Market
Traders and Air Hostesses.
• Clearly there are millions of women working in
occupations like Construction and Mining, where
the academic analysis has not even begun.
The End