IB 105 - Announcements
Sept 30, 2006
History of Environmentalism in the US
Naturalist Philosophers
(mid 1800s)
•Nature has intrinsic
aesthetic and spiritual
values
•Ralph Waldo Emerson wrote in
1836, “behind nature, throughout
nature, spirit is present”
•Henry David Thoreau published his classic, Walden, in
1854, in which he recounts his life in the woods
Pragmatic Resource Conservation
(Mid to late 1800s, early 1900s)
•Preservation of nature for future consumption
Man and Nature by George Perkins Marsh
published 1864
• Marsh traveled widely and saw environmental damage
elsewhere in the world
•His book warned of the ecological consequences of the
“conquest” of the frontier—resources are not endless
•Natural forest reserves established in the US in 1873 to
protect dwindling timer supplies
Pragmatic Resource Conservation
•In 1905, then president Theodore Roosevelt
appointed Gifford Pinchot as chief of the
Forest Service
•Pinchot argued for forest protection “not because they
are beautiful or because they shelter wild creatures of
the wilderness, but only to provide homes and jobs for
people”
•“…for the greatest good, for the greatest number for
the longest time”
Moral and aesthetic nature preservation
(Mid to late 1800s, early 1900s)
•Preservation of nature for nature’s sake
•Yellowstone National Park established in
1872 (National Park Service not established
until 1916)
•John Muir, early environmental activist
strenuously opposed Pinchot’s policies
John Muir
•“The world, we are told, was made
for man. A presumption that is
totally unsupported by the facts…”
•Formed Sierra Club in 1892
(http://www.sierraclub.org/)
•Fought for the establishment of Yosemite and King’s
Canyon National Parks
•Lobbied to create national park system (Formed
in 1916, 2 years after his death)
Interest in environmental issues lagged
behind more immediate issues during the
early part of the 1900s
By the mid 1900s, there was growing
concern about heath and ecological
damage caused by pollution
Aldo Leopold
•Founded the field of game
management
•His most famous publication A
Sand County Almanac was
published in 1949, a year after
his death
•Chapter called “The Land Ethic” set the
foundation for “modern” conservation
Rachael Carson
•Published Silent Spring in 1962
•Warned about the consequences of
pesticide use (DDT)
•Book marked the beginning of the modern
environmental movement
April 22th, 1970 – First Earth Day
20 million people in 2,000 communities marched to
demand improved environmental quality
Environmentalism in the 1970s:
Clean Water Act
Clean Air Act
Safe Drinking Water Act
Endangered Species Act
Establishment of the Environmental Protection Agency
Environmentalism in the 1980s:
•Backlash against the environmental movement
•Increased resource use on public lands
•Federal funding for energy conservation and renewable
resources cut
•Relaxed federal air and water quality standards
Late 1980s – “Wise-use” movement
Ron Arnold major proponent, wrote “The Wise-use Agenda”
•Replace National Park Service with privately operated parks
•Remove restrictions on wetland development
•Cut all remaining old growth forests and replace with tree
farms
•Open all national parks, wilderness areas, wildlife refuges,
to off-road vehicles, commercial development, mining, and
drilling for oil
At the same time (1980s), visible environmental problems
pushed environmental issues to the forefront
Exxon Valdez oil spill
Hypodermic needles and other toxic waste washing up on
beaches in NY and NJ
At the same time (1980s), visible environmental problems
pushed environmental issues to the forefront
Thinning ozone layer over
Antarctica
1983 EPA and National Academy of Sciences Report warns of
environmental problems associated with global warming
Global environmental citizenship - 1990s
1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro
172 Governments participated
Focus on Climate Change and Biological Diversity
1997 Kyoto Protocol
Nations pledged to reduce emissions
US signed but did not ratify the protocol - the
accord's tough requirements would be too costly
to the U.S. economy.
Global environmental citizenship
1990s to present
•Clinton administration protected more land as national
monuments in lower 48 states than did any other
administration
•Increase awareness by the general public regarding
issues of biodiversity, invasive species, global change,
etc.
•UN names 2003 as the International Year of Freshwater
2000-present: Current Administration often comes under
attack from Environmental Groups
•Revisions to the Clean Air Act that allow increased
pollution
•Favors increased use of resources on Federal lands
(e.g., “Healthy Forest” initiative)
•VP Cheney: Conservation may be a sign of personal
virtue, but it is not a sufficient basis for a sound,
comprehensive energy policy.
Points to know:
1. Name 5 disciplines that environmental science encompasses.
2. Know the major environmental concerns of the 6 major regions of North
America.
3. How do environmental issues become a global concern?
4. For each person, classify their environmental view as “nature”,
“conservation” or “consumption”:
Ron Arnold
Ralph Waldo Emerson
John Muir
Rachael Carson
Aldo Leopold
Gifford Pinchot
Dick Cheney
George Perkins Marsh
Henry David Thoreau
5. Know the environmental issues (generally, and at least 2 specifically)
that occurred in:
1970’s
1980’s
1990’s
2000-present
Environmental Ethics
Lecture Objectives:
1. Learn three theories of moral responsibility
to the environment
2. Learn three prevailing environmental
attitudes
3. Explore how individuals, governments
and corporations approach environmental
ethics
Ethics and Morals
Ethics - Seeks to define fundamentally what is right
and what is wrong, regardless of cultural
differences.
Morals - Reflect predominate feelings of a culture
about ethical issues.
Environmental ethics - Topic of applied ethics that
examines the moral basis of environmental
responsibility
Three primary theories of moral responsibility regarding
the environment
Anthropocentric: (Human centered)
Responsibility derived from human interests
Only humans are morally significant
Preservation for future consumption
Three primary theories of moral responsibility regarding
the environment
Biocentric:
Life-centered rather than human centered
All life forms have a right to exist
Animal Rights
Three primary theories of moral responsibility regarding
the environment
Ecocentric:
Environment deserves direct moral consideration
The environment has an inherent value
Advocated by Aldo Leopold
Ecocentric View
“A thing is right when it tends to preserve the integrity,
stability, and beauty of the biotic community. It is
wrong when it tends otherwise….We abuse land
because we regard it as a community belonging to us.
When we see land as a community to which we
belong, we may begin to use it with love and
respect.”
- Aldo Leopold
Environmental Attitudes
• Developmental Ethic
• Preservation Ethic
• Conservation Ethic
Developmental Ethic
• Based on individualism.
• Assumes humans are, and should be,
masters of nature.
– All resources exist solely for human benefit.
• Reinforced by work ethic.
– Humans should always be busy and create
“progress.”
Preservation Ethic
• Nature has intrinsic value apart from human
appropriation.
• Reasons range from aesthetic to scientific.
– Animal Rights—all creatures have a right to
live, regardless of social or economic costs.
– Humans dependent on environment.
• Preserve nature for future generations.
Conservation Ethic
• Extends rational consideration to entire earth.
• Works toward a balance between resource use and
availability.
• Stresses finding a balance between total
development and absolute preservation.
– Rapid, uncontrolled growth is self-defeating in the long
run.
Corporate Environmental Ethics
Corporations - legal
entities designed to
operate at a profit.
When raw materials are processed,
some waste is inevitable.
Many consider
manufacturing waste
unethical, while
corporations may
see it as one factor
determining
profitability.
The cost of
controlling
waste can be
very
important in
determining
a company’s
profit
margin.
28 August 2003
EPA softens rules to allow more
emissions
Industries say change will aid
system upgrades
Profit margin determines expansion.
More expansion leads to more production and more wastes.
Corporate Environmental Ethics
Practicing an environmental ethic should not
interfere with corporate responsibilities.
It makes little sense to preserve the
environment if preservation causes
economic collapse
Nor does it make sense to maintain industrial
productivity at the cost of breathable air, clean
water, wildlife, parks, and wilderness.
Compromise is possible
Waste generation
is directly
correlated with
per capita
income, but few
toxic waste sites
are located in
affluent suburbs.
NIMBY - Not In My Back Yard
Individual Environmental Ethics
Recognition of individual responsibility must lead to
changes in individual behavior.
Recent opinion polls indicate that Americans think
environmental problems often have a quick
technological fix.
Many want a cleaner environment,
but do not want to make the
necessary lifestyle changes
Consumption
Ecologist Paul Ehrlich argues the
American lifestyle is driving the global
ecosystem to the brink of collapse.
If everyone on Earth consumed as much oil
as the average American, the world’s
known reserves would be gone in a decade
Consumption
Economist Julian Simon argued
human ingenuity, not resources,
limits economic growth and
lifestyles.
Bet between Simon and Erhlich (1980):
Erhlich – Consumption of resources would drive prices up
Simon – Technology would replace any potential
shortages and prices would fall
Result of bet between Simon and Erhlich (1990)
Metal
1980 price
(1980 dollars)
1990 price
(1980 dollars)
Copper (195.56 lbs.)
$200
$163
Chrome (51.28 lbs.)
$200
$120
Nickel (63.52 lbs.)
$200
$193
Tin (229.1 lbs.)
$200
$56
Tungsten (13.64 lbs.)
$200
$86
Erhlich – prices fell because of lower demand
Simon – prices fell because of new materials (e.g., plastics)
Global
Environmental
Ethics
Ecological
degradation in any
nation inevitably
impinges quality of
life in others.
What is your ecological footprint?
http://www.earthday.net/footprint/index.asp
For extra credit, print out your ecological
footprint and bring it to class on Friday!