Running head: BREAKING THE GLASS CEILING
The Glass Ceiling: Can Women Break Through the Barrier?
Claire Bussell
New Mexico State University
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BREAKING THE GLASS CEILING
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Abstract
This paper explores the ethical dilemma in the unequal representation of women in
positions of power and leadership in organizations, also known as the glass ceiling. This
paper will dive into the notion that the greatest obstacle women face in attaining upperlevel positions is the cultural stereotype that men are superior managers to women.
Mentorships are very crucial to job promotions within a company, but usually only same
genders form this type of relationship. This notion adds to the glass ceiling effect because
only a few women are at the top. Men and women are seen as having different leadership
styles. Men are connected to traits like boldness and power, which are seen as innate
qualities for management (Eagly & Carli, 2007). Women possess traits like niceness and
agreeableness, which are viewed as hindrances in leadership (Koenig, Eagly, Mitchell, &
Ristikari, 2011). Through investigating this concept, it was discovered that a
collaborative style of leadership is the ideal form of leadership, which is the style that
women most often times possess (Lowe, 2011). This statement was deemed very
contradictory since only 4.2% of CEOs of Fortune 500 Companies are women (Catalyst,
2013). This statement also backs up the notion of gender biases present in the workplace.
Progress is being made for equal representation in the workforce, but discrimination in
management positions still creates a barrier for women.
The Glass Ceiling: Can Women Break Through the Barrier?
The “glass ceiling” refers to the figurative near-impenetrable wall that women and
minorities face in attaining upper-level positions. This paper will explore the
phenomenon that is the glass ceiling and the idea that the primary obstacle for women in
positions of leadership and power is the cultural stereotype that males are better managers
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than females. This stereotype within society raises many questions as to why women
have such a hard time achieving high-up positions, since women possess qualities to be
proficient leaders in companies (Berry & Franks, 2010). The main themes in this paper
will review the various factors connected to the differential treatment of women in the
workforce, like the distorted industry perceptions of successful leadership qualities,
gender biases, women and their role in family responsibilities, and the diverse traits of
men and women playing a part in the glass ceiling issue. This paper aims to educate
people of this ever-present problem and potentially spark new questions and ideas
regarding the glass ceiling. To gain an inside perspective to this phenomenon, Annette
Barrick, of the City of Carlsbad, NM, was interviewed on her thoughts and experiences
concerning the glass ceiling. Her full interview can be viewed in the Appendix.
This predicament for women is an occurrence that has been around for decades.
The Civil Rights Act was passed in 1964, making it illegal for employers to discriminate
based on sex, yet the glass ceiling still limits women (Berry & Franks, 2010). Although
this dilemma is still present, progress has been made in putting cracks in the glass ceiling
for women. According to the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC)
(2004), “the percent of women officials and managers in the private sector has increased
from just over 29 percent in 1990 to 36.4 percent in 2002”. Please view the graph below
this paragraph to view how the percentage of women as officials and managers has
progressed since 1990. Women are slowly making their presence known in more
powerful positions within the work place, but there is still an obvious restriction present.
Are the cracks being put in the glass ceiling enough to break it entirely?
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Employment of Women as Officials and Managers (1990-2002)
Source: The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. (2004). [Line graph of percentage of women as officials and managers through 1990-2002].
Glass Ceilings: The Status of Women as Officials and Managers in the Private Sector. Retrieved from
http://www.eeoc.gov/eeoc/statistics/reports/glassceiling/
Discussion
Limitations
Due to length restraints, this paper does not examine all aspects of the glass
ceiling. This paper tries to cover the main issues behind this phenomenon, but there are
factors like the various social theories that are not present in this paper. Discrimination
against women minorities is also a rampant issue, but the nature of race is not weighed in
to the argument of this paper.
Cultural Standards
Gender biases have plagued the work place for quite some time now. One issue
that pertains to the obstacle of women attaining higher positions is the idea of managers
as mentors. This system is unofficially set up in many organizations where a person in a
more powerful position provides guidance to lower level positions (Elacqua, Beehr,
Hansen & Webster, 2009). Having a mentor who is in a better position within a company
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is a great asset to have because the mentor can offer invaluable feedback and support for
duties in the company. This guidance can even help in attaining higher-up positions
(Elacqua, et al., 2009) There should be no issue with this resource except for the fact that
mentors usually seek out mentees of the same sex, and since women are sparingly in
managerial roles, this makes it challenging for women in entry-level positions to find
mentors (Turban, Doughetry, & Lee, 2002). Mentorships are also connected with
networking within a company, which is beneficial to an employee’s future promotions as
well.
Another existing issue within organizations is the “old boys” system. This set-up
is where men are presented with more opportunities and tasks from male supervisors than
women. This form of favoritism makes it challenging for women to take on more
responsibility and better job assignments if male co-workers fill those positions (Elacqua,
et al., 2009).
Family Responsibilities. Although society has progressed from cultural stereotypes of
past decades like the woman staying at home while the man has the career, this concept
still somewhat impacts organizations. Women are still seen as having more family and
personal duties compared to men. This cultural norm has put intense pressure on career
women to perfect the work-life balance (Triki, Sami, & Ureche-Rangau, 2012). Women
with families and personal commitments are taking more time off than their male
counterparts, which puts their obligations to their jobs in question. This work-life balance
act that women partake in often times results in career interruptions, and ultimately leads
to slower career advancements (Eagly & Carli, 2007).
Leadership Attributes
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A manager or official of an organization requires certain qualities to being a
successful leader. Firms need an effective leader because managers have control over the
duties of the organization as well as hiring and firing of employees (Eagly & Carli,
2007). Honesty is a definite trait needed for management as people in these positions are
held at a higher regard than lower-level employees (A. Barrick, personal communication,
March 13, 2013). If a manager is deemed as a dishonest person, their employees will lack
trust and respect in their abilities as managers.
According to Northouse (2010), the best style of leadership is the collaborative
style, regardless of sex. This leadership style brings about a concern for others as well as
assertiveness. A competitive style, on the other hand, involves a great deal of
assertiveness, but with the greater potential for confrontation (Lowe, 2011). People with
this form of leadership are seen as selfish and lacking compassion, which are traits that
do not translate well into effective managers.
Male vs. Female. The societal stereotype present is that men contain innate
qualities to be effective leaders (Eagly & Carli, 2007). Traits like boldness and power are
perceived as desired managerial skills, which are seen as male characteristics. If a woman
does in fact have “male” qualities, like boldness, the woman is seen as rude rather than
bold (A. Barrick, personal communication, March 13, 2013). Most of the time women, on
the other hand, are connected to qualities like niceness and agreeableness, which are
viewed as flaws for management purposes (Koenig, Eagly, Mitchell, & Ristikari, 2011).
On the other hand, A. Barrick states that she does not think that men and women have
different leadership styles, but “they are perceived to be different” (personal
communication, March 13, 2013). Regardless of whether or not men and women possess
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diverse leadership styles, the cultural perceptions associated with these notions certainly
spill over into organizations and firmly block women’s chances of breaking this unfair
mold. The interesting part of this cultural notion is the fact that women are associated
with having more of a collaborative style of guidance, which as discussed in the previous
section, is the ideal manner for a superior to have (Lowe, 2011). Women are more likely
than men to welcome insight from a combined group on decisions. On top of a
collaborative system for management, females also possess great people skills,
socialization, and line experience (Berry & Franks, 2010). With this statement in mind, it
would be reasonable enough to think that women would be favored for top-managerial
positions. We know that this is not the case since only 4.2% of CEOs of Fortune-500
companies are women (Catalyst, 2013). The pyramid below gives a unique view into the
role women have in the labor force. It appears as though a sort of catch-22 exists where
women possess top-par qualities for management, but cultural standards prevent most
women from ever reaching these positions. The perception stated by Berry and Franks
(2010) that the “power of male is the norm” does not seem so farfetched anymore.
Figure 1
Another aspect to the differences of male and female leadership traits is each
gender’s view of fairness (Lowe, 2011). Men approach ethics looking to seek out justice
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centered on rules and laws, whereas women’s tactics are more from an interpersonal
perspective (Gilligan, 1982). Women tend to view matters of morality from the outside
looking in, which definitely ties back into the collaborative style of leadership that
women possess.
Glass Ceiling?
Throughout this paper the figurative wall that is the glass ceiling has been
examined and discussed as the main force behind the gender discrimination in the
workplace. In this section we will look to other explanations for the gender inequalities
present. In the book, Through the Labyrinth: The Truth About How Women Become
Leaders, Eagly and Carli bring a unique perspective to the glass ceiling. Throughout their
book they reveal flaws to the glass ceiling, stating that it does not equally represent
women in the workplace (Eagly & Carli, 2007). It is no secret that women do not have
equal opportunities in all industries. Organizations where men are the stifling majority
create an even greater obstacle for women. Conversely, positions where women have
more of a presence do not have to deal much with the glass ceiling. A. Barrick linked this
idea with her own experiences as she stated that she has not had much involvement with
glass ceiling because most of her past positions were held by women (personal
communication, March 13, 2013).
Eagly and Carli discussed the past discrimination against women as the “concrete
wall”, where endless barriers were present for women, making it nearly impossible for
women to attain any type of work position (Eagly & Carli, 2007). Once laws were
passed preventing discrimination in the workplace, those previous barriers were slightly
more permeable, thus creating the glass ceiling. Eagly and Carli present the term
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“labyrinth” as the updated version for the glass ceiling. The labyrinth describes the path
to positions of leadership and power with many barriers, some more substantial than
others (Eagly & Carli, 2007). This term produces a new way of thinking and avenues for
research in regards to gender inequalities.
Conclusion
Throughout this paper the glass ceiling concept was thoroughly explored and
researched. We examined the notion that the major barrier facing women in the
workforce is the societal stereotype that men are better leaders than women. In regards to
this theory, factors like gender biases, perceptions of successful managers, and differing
traits in men and women were all weighed in to the discussion. From the extensive
research included in this paper, it was discovered that a woman’s typical form of
leadership is a collaborative one, which is highly favored by employees, but regardless of
this information, women still encounter opposition (Lowe, 2011). Society is unable to get
past the norm of men being managers, along with the other unfair gender biases present.
Although this illuminating evidence supports the notion that the chief hurdle for women
reaching management is the stereotype that males are better managers, it is unfair to state
that this idea is the primary factor. Through the research from this paper, it is apparent
that the various forms of gender biases are also central to the unequal representation of
women managers in the workplace.
Future of the Glass Ceiling
The discrimination against women has certainly lessened, but the fight is still
ongoing. Discrepancies are still very present in the workplace, as mentioned earlier.
Statistics have proven that women are gaining increasing momentum in the workforce,
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but that progress nearly stops at top positions. As society continues to grow and more
research and information is created pertaining to women in the workplace, this new found
knowledge will hopefully spark change in the presence of the glass ceiling.
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References
Berry, P. & Franks, T. (2010). Women in the world of corporate business: Looking at the
glass ceiling. Contemporary Issues in Education Research. 3(2). Retrieved from
http://journals.cluteonline.com/index.php/CIER/article/viewFile/171/164
Catalyst. (2013). Catalyst Pyramid: U.S. Women in Business. New York: Catalyst.
Retrieved from http://catalyst.org/knowledge/us-women-business-0
Eagly, A. H., & Carli, L. L. (2007). Through the Labyrinth: The Truth About How
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gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false
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Gilligan, C. (1982). In a different voice: Psychological theory and women’s development.
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Whvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#db=aph&AN=67698866
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Koenig, A., Eagly, A., Mitchell, A. & Ristikari, T. (2011). Are leader stereotypes
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Lowe, M. (2011). Breaking the stained glass ceiling: Women’s collaborative leadership
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Whvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#db=aph&AN=67698866
Northouse, P. (2010). Leadership: Theory and practice. Los Angeles, CA: Sage
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%20US&f=false
The U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. (2004). [Line graph of
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Ceilings: The Status of Women as Officials and Managers in the Private Sector.
Retrieved from http://www.eeoc.gov/eeoc/statistics/reports/glassceiling/
The U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC). (2004). Glass ceilings:
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Triki, T., Sami, H., & Ureche-Rangau, L. (2012). How successful are women in breaking
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Appendix
Interview
Annette Barrick
City Clerk/Executive Assistant to the City Administrator for the City of Carlsbad, NM
jabarrick@cityofcarlsbadnm.com
Mrs. Barrick gave some interesting insight into the glass ceiling. She brought
about a unique perspective regarding the major barrier for women facing the glass ceiling
that I had not seen discussed throughout my research. She also provided another
characteristic for a successful manager (honesty) that is an absolutely essential trait, but I
had not considered it before. Through this interview Mrs. Barrick provided different
thoughts and ideas about the glass ceiling that proved to be very beneficial to this paper.
Questions
1.
Can you remember a specific point in your career when you faced the opposition
associated with the glass ceiling? I have not experienced anything in particular because
most of my positions were typically held by women.
2.
Do you think you were affected more or less by the glass ceiling before you
reached the influential position you currently are in? I would say more, as a Director, the
expectations are greater.
3.
What qualities do you think make a successful manager? Honesty is the number
one quality.
4.
Do you think that men and women have different leadership styles? I do not think
they are different, but I do think they are perceived to be different.
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What do you think of the notion that men have innate characteristics (boldness
and power) to be effective managers? How do you think this idea affects the glass
ceiling? I agree that society considers Men as more powerful. I think a “bold” woman is
considered to be rude rather than bold.
6.
What do you think is the primary obstacle that women face in breaking through
the glass ceiling? The perception that a woman is not as capable.
7.
Do you believe that women have more pressure to maintain personal and family
responsibilities than men? If so, does this concept have any impact on the glass ceiling? I
do not think there is a belief that women are the primary care givers to the family and
that men are the “money makers”.
8.
Data shows that women possess equal qualifications and work experience to men
to maintain responsibilities in chief positions (Berry & Franks, 2010), yet women still
struggle to attain these positions. In your opinion, what do you think is holding us back? I
think what holds women back is that women have not been given opportunities in the past
to prove they can be as successful as men.