Myers’ PSYCHOLOGY (7th Ed) Chapter 18 Social Psychology James A. McCubbin, PhD Clemson University Worth Publishers Social Thinking Social Psychology scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another Attribution Theory tendency to give a causal explanation for someone’s behavior, often by crediting either: the situation or the person’s disposition The Lunch Date Social Thinking Fundamental Attribution Error tendency for observers, when analyzing another’s behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition Attitude belief and feeling that predisposes one to respond in a particular way to objects, people and events Social Thinking How we explain someone’s behavior affects how we react to it Situational attribution “Maybe that driver is ill.” Tolerant reaction (proceed cautiously, allow driver a wide berth) Dispositional attribution “Crazy driver!” Unfavorable reaction (speed up and race past the other driver, give a dirty look) Negative behavior Social Thinking Our behavior is affected by our inner attitudes as well as by external social influences Internal attitudes External influences Behavior Attitudes and Actions Attitude belief and feeling that predisposes one to respond in a particular way to objects, people and events Attitudes and Actions Do Attitudes Guide Actions? Yes, IF: Outside influences on are minimal Don’t feel pressure to act or say one way or the other The attitude is specifically relevant to the behavior Often general attitudes contradict behavior Attitudes about specific ACT do guide action We are aware of our attitudes Acting out or habit or others’ expectations then attitude doesn’t come into play Repeatedly expressing an attitude make it come to mind more quickly More likely to guide behavior Attitudes and Actions Do Actions Guide Attitudes? TED talk Attitudes and Actions Foot-in-the-Door Phenomenon Tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request “Thought control” programs on prisoners of war A trivial act makes the next act easier Social Thinking Cognitive Dissonance Theory we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent example- when we become aware that our attitudes and our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes Social Thinking Cognitive Dissonance Theory Cognitive Dissonance Theory: How do we deal with cognitive dissonance? Thought 1 I smoke Thought 2 smoking causes cancer (is bad) Modify (thought 1): don’t smoke enough to be worried ; I’ll quit tomorrow Trivialize (thought 2): evidence is weak Add (new thought): exercise to counter effects Deny (no connection): no evidence they’re even linked Social Thinking Cognitive Dissonance Theory In order to reduce this dissonance between belief and behavior, he has a few difference choices: He can sell the car and purchase another one that gets better gas mileage OR He can reduce his emphasis on environmentalresponsibility. In the case of the second option, his dissonance could be further minimized by engaging in actions that reduce the impact of driving a gas-guzzling vehicle, such as utilizing public transportation more frequently or riding his bike to work on occasion. Social Thinking Cognitive Dissonance Theory How to Reduce Cognitive Dissonance Three key strategies to reduce or minimize cognitive dissonance: Focus on more supportive beliefs that outweigh the dissonant belief or behavior Reduce the importance of the conflicting belief Change the conflicting belief so that it is consistent with other beliefs or behaviors Review Attribution Theory Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE) Attitude (influence in action and vice versa) Foot in the Door Phenomenon Cognitive Dissonance Role (Zimbardo) Conformity (Asch) Normative Social Influence Informative Social Influence Obedience (Millgram) Social Facilitation Social Loafing Deindividuation Group Polarization Group Think Prejudice Discrimination Stereotype Bystander Effect In Group Out group Cognitive Dissonance Social Thinking Role set of expectations about a social position defines how those in the position ought to behave Zimbardo Prison Experiment Follow-up Social Norms Social Norm Violations… http://www.radford.edu/~jaspelme/social/examples _of_norm_violations.htm Social Influence Conformity adjusting one’s behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard Normative Social Influence influence resulting from a person’s desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval Social Influence Normative Social Influence influence resulting from a person’s desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval To be seen as NORMal Informational Social Influence influence resulting from one’s willingness to accept others’ opinions about reality Alter the perception of INFORMATION Social Influence Informational Social Influence influence resulting from one’s willingness to accept others’ opinions about reality Social Influence Asch’s conformity experiments Social Influence Milgram’s Obedience Experiment Milgram knew people comply to social pressures, but what about outright commands? Obedience was highest when: The person giving the orders was close at hand and a legitimate authority figure Supported by a prestigious title or organization (Yale researchers, for example) The victim was depersonalized or at a distance No role models for defiance Social Influence Milgram’s follow-up obedience experiment Lessons from the Conformity and Obedience Studies Asch (normative and informational social influences) and Milgram (obedience to “scientist”) experiments Demonstrate that strong social influences can make people conform to falsehoods or give in to cruelty GROUP Influence: Individual Behavior in the Presence of Others Social Facilitation improved performance of tasks in the presence of others occurs with simple/well-learned tasks but not with tasks that are difficult or not yet mastered Social Loafing tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable GROUP Influence: Individual Behavior in the Presence of Others Deindividuation loss of self-awareness and selfrestraint in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity - example: RIOTS Effects of Group Interaction Group Polarization enhancement of a group’s prevailing attitudes through discussion within the group Groupthink mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides realistic appraisal of alternatives Social Relations Prejudice an unjustifiable (and usually negative) attitude toward a group and its members involves stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings, and a predisposition to discriminatory action Stereotype a generalized (sometimes accurate, but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people Social Relations Bystander Effect tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present Video Social Relations The decision-making process for bystander intervention Social Relations Ingroup “Us”- people with whom one shares a common identity Outgroup “Them”- those perceived as different or apart from one’s ingroup Brown Eyed - Blue Eyed Social Relations Ingroup Bias tendency to favor one’s own group Scapegoat Theory theory that prejudice provides an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame Just-World Phenomenon tendency of people to believe the world is just people get what they deserve and deserve what they get Social Relations Aggression any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy Frustration-Aggression Principle principle that frustration – the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal – creates anger, which can generate aggression Social Relations Social Relations Conflict perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas Social Trap a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior Attraction: liking and loving Social Attractiveness: What makes us attractive to each other? Do birds of a feather flock together or do opposites attract? Does familiarity breed contempt or does it intensify our affection? Does absence make the heart grow fonder or is it out of sight, out of mind? What attracts us? 1. PROXIMITY Mere Exposure Effect repeated exposure to stimuli increases liking of them 2. ATTRACTIVENESS Conceptions of attractiveness vary by culture 3. SIMILARITIES Common attitudes, beliefs, interests, intelligence, age, economic status Attraction: liking and loving Social Attractiveness: What makes us attractive to each other? Concept of Beauty 1 Attraction: liking and loving Concept of Beauty 2 Attraction: liking and loving Concept of Beauty 3 Attraction: liking and loving Concept of Beauty 4 Attraction: liking and loving Concept of Beauty 5 Attraction: liking and loving Concept of Beauty 6 Social Relations Passionate Love an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another usually present at the beginning of a love relationship Companionate Love deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined THEORIES OF LOVE: Hatfield Companionate Love affection secure, intimacy equity self-disclosure Passionate Love physical arousal cognitive appraisal physiological THEORIES OF LOVE Rubin’s: Liking or Loving Loving - Attachment - - Caring - - Intimacy vs. Liking - Evaluative THEORIES OF LOVE Sternberg’s Triangular Theory Intimacy: feeling component of love, know each other well Passionate: motivating component: arousal, sex Consummate Love: Intimacy + Passion + Commitment Commitment: thinking componentmarriage, com When all are balanced – consummate love! Social Relations Equity a condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it – freely give & receive – Companionate love Self-Disclosure revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others Altruism unselfish regard for the welfare of others