Louis P.Pojman
Ethics: discovering right and
wrong
1
Ethical theories
ethical theory the locus of value
deontological
the (kind) of act
teleological
the outcome i.e.
consequences
virtue
the character
Pojman p 11-12
2
Normative subjects
Subject
Normative Disjuncts Sanctions
Ethics
Right and wrong, as
defined by conscience or
reason
Conscience – praise and blame,
reputation
Religion
Right and wrong (sin),
generally as defined by
religious authority
Conscience – eternal reward and
punishment, due to a supernatural
agent or force
Law
Legal and illegal, as
defined by a judicial body
Punishments determined by the
legislative body
Etiquette
Proper and improper, as
defined by the culture
Social disapprobation and
approbation
Pojman p 6
3
Traits of Moral Principles
1. Prescriptivity
2. Universalizability
3. Overridingness
4. Publicity
5. Practicability
Pojman p 7
4
What and how do we evaluate
Domain
1.Action (the act)
2.Consequences
Evaluative Terms
Right, wrong, obligatory,
optional
Good, bad, indifferent
3.Character
Virtuous, vicious, neutral
4.Motive
Good will, evil will,
neutral
Pojman p 9
5
Types of action
Right
(permissible)
Wrong
(not permissible)
Obligatory
Optional
Neutral
Supererogatory
Pojman p 10
6
The Purposes of Morality
1.
2.
3.
4.
To keep society from falling apart.
To ameliorate human suffering.
To promote human flourishing.
To resolve conflicts of interest in just
ways.
5. To assign responsibility for actions.
Pojman p 18
7
Ethical Relativism
1. The Diversity Thesis:
there are no universal moral standards held by all societies
2. The Dependency Thesis:
to act in a certain way is relative to the society
3. The Conclusion:
there are no absolute or objective moral standards
Pojman p 28
8
Ethical Subjectivism
»Solipsism
»Atomism
»Escapism
Pojman p 33
9
Ethical Conventionalism
• Conservative
• Totalitarian
• Intolerant
Pojman p 41
10
The doctrine of natural law
1. Morality is a function of human nature.
2. Reason can discover valid moral
principles by looking at the nature of
humanity and society.
Pojman p 45
11
The key ideas of the natural law
tradition
1. Human beings have an essential rational
nature
2. Reason can discover the laws for human
flourishing
3. The natural laws are universal and
unchangeable
Pojman p 47
12
The doctrine of double effect
an act is morally permissible:
1.
2.
3.
4.
The Nature-of-the-Act Condition
The Means-End Condition
The Right-Intention Condition
The Proportionality Condition
Pojman p 48
13
Moral absolutism and objectivism
moral
absolutism
moral
principles
are
nonoverridable
moral
norms are
without
exceptions
Kant, act
utilitarianism
moral
objectivism
moral
principles
are
universally
valid
no moral
duty has
absolute
priority
Ross
Pojman p 45
14
Prima facie principles
valid rules of action
that one should generally adhere to
but that, in cases of moral conflict,
may be overridable by
another moral principle.
Pojman p 51
15
Minimal principles of the core
morality
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Do not kill innocent people.
Do not cause unnecessary pain or suffering.
Do not steal or cheat.
Keep your promises and honor your contracts.
Do not deprive another person of his or her freedom.
Do justice, treating equals equally and unequals
unequally.
7. Reciprocate: Show gratitude for services rendered.
8. Tell the truth, or, at least, do not lie.
9. Help other people, at least when the cost to oneself is
minimal.
10. Obey just laws.
Pojman p 52
16
Justification of Moderate
Objectivism
1. Human nature is relatively similar, having a
common set of needs and interests.
2. Moral principles are functions of human needs
and interests, instituted by reason.
3. Some moral principles will meet human needs
and promote human interests better than
others.
4. These principles can be said to be objectively
valid principles.
5. Therefore an objectively valid set of moral
principles is applicable to all humanity.
Pojman p 53-54
17
The attraction of ethical relativism
1. The option that absolutism and relativism are
the only alternatives.
2. Objectiviam is confused with realism.
3. The move from descriptive cultural relativism to
normative ethical relativism.
4. Drive to moral nihilism and relativism because of
the decline of religion in Western society.
5. As metaethics so ought also ethics be morally
neutral (amoral).
Pojman p 56-58
18
Egoism
The doctrine that it is morally right
always to seek one's own self-interest
without regard for others.
Pojman p 71
19
Four types of egoism
1.Psychological
egoism
We have no choice butto be
selfish.
2.Personal
egoism
The state of being selfish by
choice
3.Individual
ethical egoism
Everyone ought to serve my
best interest
4.Universal
ethical egoism
Everyone ought always to do
those acts that will best serve
own best self-interest Pojman p 65
20
Ethical egoism
1. The Economist Argument
individual selfinterest in a competitive marketplace
produces a state of optimal goodness for society
at large
2. The Argument for the Virtue of Selfishness
altruism is suicidal
3. The Hobbesian Argument
because we are predominantly psychological
egoists it is morally permissible to act entirely
out of self-interest Pojman p 72-74
21
A critique of ethical egoism
1. The Inconsistent Outcomes Argument
morality is not a guide to action
2. The Publicity Argument
egoist must act alone, atomistically or solipsistically in
moral isolation
3. The Paradox of Egoism
in order to reach the goal of egoism on emust give up
egoism and become (to some extent) an altruist
4. Counterintuitive Consequences
helping others at one's own expense is morally wrong
Pojman p 76-78
22
Altruism
The theory that
we can and should
sometimes act
in favor of others' interests.
Pojman p 66
23
Four types of altuism
1.Psychological
altruism
We have no choice butto be
unselfish.
2.Personal
altruism
The state of being unselfish by
choice for reciprocal cooperation
3.Individual
ethical altruism
I ought to serve everyone’s best
interest
4.Universal
ethical altruism
Everyone ought always to sacrifice
own happiness for the good of
others From Pojman chp 4 Noormägi
24
Reciprocal Altruism
No duty to serve those
who manipulate us,
but willing to share with those
willing to cooperate.
Pojman p 80
25
Axiology
-10..........................0.........................+10
negative
neutral
positive
evil/disvalue
(value neutral)
highest
value
Pojman p 85
26
Value
(to be of worth)
intrinsic
worthy in itself
(because of its nature)
instrumental
creation of choosers
(because of its
consequences)
Pojman p 86-87
27
Plato's question
Do we desire the Good
because it is good,
or is the Good good
because we desire it?
Pojman p 85
28
Schema of the Moral Process
ACTIONS
Failure: weakness of will leads to guilt
DECISIONS
Failure: perverse will leads to guilt
JUDGMENTS
Weighing
Failure: error in application
PRINCIPLES
VALUES
Normative question: What ought I do?
Objects of desire or objects existing independently of desires
FORMS
OF LIFE
Hierarchies of beliefs, values,
and practices; cultures or ways of life
RATIONAL
JUSTIFICATION .
Of ethical theories
1. Impartiality
2. Freedom
3. Knowledge
Pojman p 95
29
The Relation of Value to Morality
Values are rooted
in cultural constructs
(in whole forms of life)
and
are the foundation
for moral principles
upon which
moral reasoning is based.
Pojman p 96
30
Views of happiness
Absolutists
Subjectivists
Combinational
(Objectivism)
A single ideal for human nature - harmony of
the soul - is to live according to reason
Happiness is in the eyes of the beholder if I feel happy, I am happy
There is a plurality of life plans open to each
person - the person is the autonomous
chooser of a plan, but there are primary
goods and unless these goods are present,
the life plan is not an authentic manifestation
of an individual's own selfhood
Pojman p 96-97
31
Plan-of-life
1. an integrated whole
2. freely chosen by the person
3. possible to realize
Pojman p 97
32
The happy life
Action
Participation in our own destiny,
not being entirely passive
Freedom
To make choices, not being
determined
Character
To be someone, have identity
Relationships To love and be loved
Pojman p 99
33
Standard of happy life
exclude being
severely retarded,
a slave,
a drug addict
include being
a deeply fulfilled,
autonomous,
healthy person
Pojman p 100
34
Happiness
is a life in which exist
free action
(including meaningful work),
loving relations, and
moral character,
and
in which the individual is
not plagued by guilt
and anxiety but
is blessed with
peace and satisfaction. Pojman p 100
35
Traditional morality
advise
who
criticism
Let your
conscience be
your guide
common
sense
conscience is
a function of
upbringing
Do whatever is
most loving
St. Augustine no help in a
conflict of
interests
Do unto others
as you would
have them do
unto you
the Golden
Rule
we are
different
Pojman p 105-106
36
Utilitarianism
“The Greatest happiness
for the greatest number”
Pojman p 107
37
Punishment
how
why
purpose
retribution
justice
defensive
proportional
threat
preventive
Pojman p 109
38
Hedonic calculus
make quantitative measurements
and
apply the principle impartially
Pojman p 110
39
Criteria of pleasure and pain
»intensity
»duration
»certainty
»nearness
»fruitfulness
»purity
»extent
Pojman p 110
40
Moral experts
Those who have had
wide experience of
the lower and higher pleasures
almost all give
a decided preference
to the higher type.
Pojman p 111
41
Act-Utilitarianism
An act is right
if and only if it
results in as much good
as any available alternative.
Pojman p 112
42
Rule-Utilitarianism
An act is right
if and only if it is
required by a rule that is itself
a member of a set of rules
whose acceptance would lead to
greater utility for society than
any available alternative.
Pojman p 113
43
Negative responsibility
we are responsible
not only
for the consequences
of our actions (doing),
but also
for the consequences
of our non-actions (allowing)
Pojman p 114
44
3 kinds of consequences
consequence
good, bad,
indifferent
actual
absolutely
expected
objectively
intended
subjectively
Pojman p 117
45
The strengths and weaknesses of
utilitarianism
strengths:
• an absolute system with a single priciple with a
potential answer for every situation;
• morality has the substance: promoting human
flourishing.
weaknesses:
• there are two superlatives in one principle either the greatest pleasure or to the greatest
number;
• the problem of knowing the comparative future
consequences of actions. Pojman p 115-117
46
External objections to utilitarianism
1. no rest
2. absurd implications
3. violates integrity
4. neglects justice
5. contradicts notion of publicity
Pojman p 118-120
47
Man and morality
Is morality
made for man,
or
is man
made for morality?
Pojman p 124
48
Deontological systems
actdeontologism
normdeontologism
intuitionism decisionism
(illumination)(existentsialism)
normnormintuitionism rationalism
Pojman p 131-133
49
Weaknesses of act-deontologism
1. There is no way for any arguments
with an intuitionist.
2. Rules are necessary also
to moral reasoning.
3. Because different situations
share common features,
it is inconsistent to prescribe
different moral actions. Pojman p 131-132
50
Prima facie
principles
conditional
self-evident
a plural set
not absolute
duties
actual
the intuition
decides
in context
Pojman p 1133/145
51
Prima facie duties
»
»
»
»
»
»
»
Promise-keeping
Fidelity
Gratitude for favors
Beneficence
Justice
Self-improvement
Non-maleficence
Pojman p 133-134
52
Intuition
is internal perception
that both
discovers
the correct moral principles
and
applies
them correctly
Pojman p 133
53
Influences on Kant’s ethical thinking
• pietism:
the good will as the sole intrinsic good in life
• Rousseau:
human dignity as the primacy of freedom
and autonomy
• rationalism versus empiricism
innate ideas versus tabula rasa
Pojman p 135-136
54
Kant on morality
Morality
is ground on our rational will reason
is sufficient for establishing
the moral law as transcendent and
universally
binding on all rational creatures.
Pojman p 137
55
Empiricism
moral principles
feelings and desires
human nature
All knowledge and justified belief
is based in experience.
Pojman p 136
56
The categorical imperative
Act only according
to that maxim
by which you can
at the same time will
that it would become
a universal law”.
Pojman p 139
57
The Golden Rule
Do unto others
as you would have them
do unto you
Pojman p 106
58
The Principle of Ends
So act as to treat humanity,
whether in your own person
or in that of any other,
in every case as an end and
never as merely a means”.
Pojman p 146
59
The Principle of Autonomy
Every rational being
is able to regard
oneself as a maker
of universal law.
Pojman p 149
60
Kant and religion
the unconditional worth and equal dignity of humanity, and
natural purposes in nature and human nature
guarantees the ultimate justification of morality
but that presupposes the ideas of
• God,
who enforces the moral law and rewards moral persons in
proportion
• immortality,
since "ought" implies "can“ there must be an afterlife in
which we make progress.
Pojman p 150-151
61
Mixed deontological ethics
the principle of beneficence
• One ought not to inflict evil or harm.
• One ought to prevent evil or harm.
• One ought to remove evil.
• One ought to do or promote good.
the principle of justice
• Treat every person with equal respect
Pojman p 152-153
62
Critique of Deontic ethical systems
1. they lack a motivational component
and morality is reactive.
2. they are founded on a theological-legal model
that is no longer appropriate.
3. they ignore the spiritual dimension of life and
morality is just calculation.
4. they overemphasize the principle of autonomy
and neglect the communal context of morality.
Pojman p 159-162
63
The virtues
are
excellences of character,
trained behavioral dispositions
that
result in habitual acts
Pojman p 163
64
Virtue ethics
Realizing
the ideal type
Imitating
the ideal individual
Pojman p 163
65
Virtues by Aristotle
intellectual
(may be taught
directly)
moral
(must be lived
to be learned)
Pojman p 163
66
Happiness by Aristotle
Moral virtues
(education)
and
proper social institutions
(health, wealth, good fortune)
Pojman p 164
67
the Golden Mean
virtues are a mean
between
excess and deficiency
at the right time,
toward the right objects,
for the right reason,
in the right manner
Pojman p 164
68
Types of Relationships between
Virtue Ethics and Deontic ethics
1. Pure Aretaic Ethics
2. The Standard Deontic View
3. Complementarity Ethics
Pojman p 166-167
69
The Paradox of Morality
Why should I be moral?
1. For the harmony of your soul.
2. God will reward or punish people.
The Ultimate Question:
Is the commitment to live by moral principles
a decision grounded on reason or
is it an arbitrary choice?
Pojman p 183-184
70
Morality and Self-Interest
When reason to be moral
is based on self-interest,
then the rational person
will be an egoist and
promote morality for everyone else
but will violate it
whenever he or she can
safely do so.
Pojman p 184
71
The Prisoner's Dilemma
1. Both cooperate - both benefit
2. Both cheat - both loose
3. You cooperate and I cheat - I benefit
4. I cooperate and you cheat - you benefit
Pojman p 186
72
The Entropy Principle
Because of limitations in
resources, intelligence, knowledge, rationality and
sympathy,
the social fabric tends to become chaos.
Morality is antientropic:
it counters the set of limitations,
expands our sympathies, and
contributes to the betterment of the human
predicament
Pojman p 231
73
The benefits of the moral life
• friendship
• mutual love
• inner peace
• moral self-esteem
• freedom from moral guilt
A human life without the benefits of morality
is not fulfilled life.
The more just the political order,
the more likely self-interest and morality will
converge.
Pojman p 188-189
74
Religion and Ethics
1. Does morality depend on religion?
a. morality depends on divine will
b. reasons for action are independent
2. Is religious ethics essentially
different from secular ethics?
a. religion is irrelevant (Kant) or
inimical to morality (secularists)
b. religion enrich morality
Pojman p 193
75
The Divine Command Theory
1. Morality originates with God.
2. Moral rightness means “willed by God”.
3. Therefore no further reasons
for action are necessary.
Pojman p 194
76
Criticism of religious morality
1. If good means "what God commands,"
then it is merely the tautology:
"God commands us to do what
God commands us to do."
2. Religious morality is arbitrary:
if there are no constraints on what
God can command, then
anything can become a moral duty.
Pojman p 196
77
Humanistic Autonomy
is higher-order reflective control
over one’s life:
rational beings can discover
objective moral principles
which enable human beings to flourish
independently of God or revelation
by using reason and experience alone.
Pojman p 198
78
Religion enrich morality
1. If God exists, then good will win out over evil.
2. If God exists, then cosmic justice reigns in the
universe.
3. If theism is true, then moral reasons always
override nonmoral reasons.
4. If theism is true, then God loves and cares for
us – his love inspires us.
5. If God created us in his image, then all
persons are of equal worth.
Pojman p 202-204
79
Religion and motive
1. God is holy
2. God rewards
3. God loves us
80
Weaknesses of religious morality
1. Religion may be used as a powerful
weapon for harming others.
2. The arguments for God's existence
are not obviously compelling.
Pojman p 204-205
81
Civil religion
• scientism
• capitalism
• nationalism
W. Beach
82
Is
Fact
refer to what
is signified
by empirically
verifiable
statements
(some object
or state of affairs
exists)
Ought
Value
refer to what
is signified
by an
evaluative
sentence
(we are evaluating
or apprising
something)
Pojman p 208-209
83
The Naturalistic Fallacy
1. Fact
2. Therefore, value.
Pojman p 212
84
Moore’s intuitionism
1. The Humean Thesis
(Ought statements cannot be derived from is statements)
2. The Platonic Thesis
(Basic value terms refer to nonnatural properties)
3. The Cognitive Thesis
(Moral statements are true or false; they are objective
claims about reality, which can be known)
4. The Intuition Thesis
(Moral truths are discovered by the intuition;
they are self-evident upon reflection)
Pojman p 216
85
Logical Positivists
the meaning
of a sentence
is found in its method
of verification
Pojman p 216
86
Noncognitivism
moral statements
are without
cognitive content –
emotivism, prescirptivism.
Pojman p 218
87
Emotivism
1. Moral language is expressive of
emotions or feelings,
without cognitive content.
2. Moral language is imperative,
not descriptive.
3. Moral language aims at persuading –
influencing another person’s actions.
Pojman p 218
88
Prescriptivism
• moral judgments
(1) are prescriptive judgments that
(2) exhibit logical relations and
(3) are universalizable • involve principles that
allow a rational procedure
in cases of conflict.
Pojman p 220
89
The Logic of Moral Reasoning
A valid moral argument
must contain at least
one ought (imperatival) premise
in order to reach
a moral conclusion.
Pojman p 222-223
90
Criticism of Prescriptivism
1. is too broad
2. permits the trivial
3. misses the point of morality
4. no constraints on altering one's principles
Pojman p 227-230
91
Fact-Value Positions
Problems of Meaning
Problems of justification
Cognitivism [Ethical claims have truth-value and it is possible to know what it is]
A. Naturalism
Ethical terms are defined in factual terms;
they refer to natural properties.
Ethical judgments are disguised
assertions of some kind of fact and thus
can be justified empirically.
1. Subjective
Their truth originates in individual or social decision.
2. Objective
Their truth is independent of individual or social decision.
B. Nonnaturalism
Ethical terms cannot be defined in factual
terms; they refer to nonnatural properties.
Ethical conclusions cannot be derived
from empirically confirmed propositions.
1. Intuitionism
Intuition alone provides confirmation.
2. Religious
revelation
Some form of divine revelation provides
confirmation.
Noncognitivism [Ethical claims do not have truth-value.]
A. Emotivism
Ethical terms do not ascribe properties, and
their meaning is not factual but, rather,
emotive.
Ethical judgments are not factually,
rationally, or intuitively justifiable.
B. Prescriptivism
Ethical terms do not ascribe properties, and
their meaning is not factual but, rather,
signifies universal prescriptions.
Ethical judgments are not factually,
intuitively, or rationally justifiable, but are
existentially justified. Pojman p 228
92
Neonaturalism
values can sometimes
be derived from facts –
certain facts
entail values.
Pojman p 227
93
Moral objectivism
moral judgments
are not truths about the world,
but judgments about
how we ought
to make the world
Pojman p 235
94
Cognitivism versus Noncognitivism
Cognitivism
Noncognitivism
Realism Naturalism
Nonnaturalism (intuitionism)
Supernaturalism
Error TheoryMoral Skepticism
Antirealism Emotivism
Prescriptivism Projectivism
Cognitivism: Moral principles
(or judgments have truth values
(they are propositions that are
true or false)
Error theory: Realism is the
correct analysis of moral
principles, but we are in error
about them. There are no moral
truths. This is a form of moral
nihilism.
Noncognitivism: Moral
principles (or judgments) do not
have truth values (they are pro
attitudes or con attitudes, not
essentially proportional).
Realism: Moral facts or
properties exist, hence moral
principles (or judgments) are
proportional and true – part of
the fabric of the universe.
Examples of realism are
naturalism, nonnaturalism, and
supernaturalism.
Moral Skepticism: There may
or may not be moral truths, but
even if they exist, we cannot
know them.
Antirealism: Moral principles
(or judgments) do not have truth
values. There are no moral
facts. Examples of antirealism
are emotivism, prescriptivism,
and projectivism (the view that,
in making moral judgments, we
project our attitudes or emotions
onto the world).
Pojman p 240
95
Direction of fit
A proposition
is true
word to world
A moral
prescriptipon
is universally
valid
world to word
Pojman p 251
96
Moral properties
are functional:
to fulfil the purpose of morality –
to promote human flourishing
and ameliorate suffering
Pojman p 244
97
Moral realism
thought experiments
as well as
anthropological and sociological data
confirm
our moral theory
which principles
are objective guidelines
for our action
Pojman p 252
98
A moral minimalism
calling us to adhere
to a core of necessary rules
in order for society to function
morality is
social control
and
defensive
Pojman p 255
99
Virtue ethics
The duty to grow
as a moral person
to take on
moral responsibility,
to increase competence
in making moral choices
to develop
moral capacities
to experience happiness.
Pojman p 257
100
The moral hero
experiences a sense of aesthetic ecstasy
at accomplishing moral deeds
that are out of the realm of possibility
for the average moral person.
Pojman p 258
101
Suggestions
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Identify the problem you want to analyze.
As clearly as possible, state the problem and what you intend to show.
Set force your arguments in logical order, and support your premises with reasons. It helps to
illustrate your points with examples or to point out counterexamples to opposing points of view.
Consider alternative points of view as well as objections to your own position. Try to meet
these charges and show why your position is more plausible.
Apply the principle of charity to your opponent’s reasoning. That is, give his or her case the
strongest interpretation possible, for unless you can meet the strongest objections to your own
position, you cannot be confident that your position is the best.
End your paper with a summary and a conclusion. That is, succinctly review your arguments
and state what you think you’ve demonstrated. In the conclusion it is always helpful to show
the implications of your conclusion for other issues. Answer the question “Why does it matter?”
Be prepared to write at least two drafts before you have a working copy. Make sure that your
arguments are well constructed and that your paper as a whole is coherent.
Regarding style: write clearly, and in an active voice. Avoid ambiguous expressions, double
negatives, and jargon. Put other people’s ideas in your own words as much as possible, and
give credit in the text and in bibliographical notes whenever you have used someone else’s
idea or quoted someone.
Include a bibliography at the end of your paper. In it list all the sources you used in writing your
paper.
Put the paper aside for a day, then read it afresh. Chances are you will find things to change.
When you have a serious problem, do not hesitate to contact your teacher.
Pojman p 269-270
102