Introduction To
Technical Operation &
Video Editing
Objectives
Know the story you are
trying to tell
2
Resources
From this knowledge will
come your kit, crew,
location, etc.
3
What is the most
important part of
creating a picture?
4
What is the most
important part of
creating a picture?
The 3 F’s
5
What is the most
important part of
creating a picture?
 Focal length – to give you shape,
size and content.
 F number – aperture to give you
picture quality and depth of field.
 Focus to give you definition and
selection.
6
What is the most
important part of
creating a picture?
 Get these right every time and
you are a long way down the
road to success.
7
Knowledge = Creative
Power
 You get what you pay for and this
shows in the quality of the glass, and
the build - through to the resolving
power of the lens.
 Always buy the best you can afford.
8
Knowledge = Creative
Power
 With semi-professional and consumer
camcorders they don’t have the option
of changing lenses.
9
Knowledge = Creative
Power
 Modem technology gives you automatic
focus, automatic aperture, motorised
zoom; all you have to do is point and
press the button.
10
Knowledge = Creative
Power
 Are you in control, do you understand what is
happening?
 If not, its a pity because you will be losing out
on one of the most creative skills in film
making.
 The lens is far more than a piece of glass
through which a picture is taken. It is the tool
you use to tell the story as you see it and,
more importantly, how you want it to be seen.
11
“The camera never
lies?”
 If that is the case you and I will be out of
a job.
 There are occasions when accurate
recordings have to be made.
 In storytelling the camera, if not exactly
lying, is often economical with the truth.
12
“The camera never
lies?”
 It needs to be because we live in a
three dimensional world and film gives
two dimensional pictures.
 Perspective, depth, the impression of a
three dimensional image telling your
story is all down to the use of a lens of
the correct focal length placed in the
right position.
13
Focal length
 Determines image size and extent of
view.
 It is the physical distance measured
from the rear node of the lens (the bit at
the back of the lens that bends the light
rays coming in) to the point of focus
(focal plane) when the lens is focused at
infinity.
14
Focal length
 This distance produces a figure in millimetres.
The larger the figure the greater the distance
from the rear node of the lens to
the focal plane. The longer the focal length,
the narrower the angle, the bigger the picture.
The smaller the focal length, the
shorter the distance from the rear node of the
lens to focal plane, the wider the angle of
view.
15
Focal length of single
lens
16
Focal length of
compound lens
17
Pre-focusing
 When the production requirement is for
a zoom-in to a subject, the lens must
first be fully zoomed in on the subject
and focused, then zoomed out to the
required starting shot. The zoom will
now stay in focus for the whole range of
its travel. If possible, always pre-focus
before zooming in.
18
Zoom Lenses
 The zoom lens gives you an infinite variety of
focal lengths, but there can be a price to pay.
 The lens’ resolving power, speed (the amount
of light it transmits).
 The ability to focus on small subject-tocamera distances. Although there are various
lens attachments, such as diopters.
19
Zoom Lenses
 Zoom lenses are identified by the range
of variation in their focal length.
 6-1 would have a ratio of say
from 9mm - 54mm
 10-1 say 12mm - 120mm, and so on.
 Standard kit would include two zoom
lenses like the above - these being the
most practical.
20
Zoom Lenses
 A lens manufacturer will state zoom ratio and
the wide-angle focal length in one figure. A
‘14 x 8.5’ zoom lens for a 2/3 inch CCD
camera can therefore be decoded as a zoom
with a 14:1 ratio starting at 8.5 mm focal
length (angle of view = 56º) with the longest
focal length of 14 x 8.5 mm = 119 mm (angle
of view 4º).
 The zoom ratio thus (approximately) equates
to ‘14 x ’ i.e. 14 x 4º = 56º.
21
Zoom Lenses
 Lenses with ratios as high as 70:1 can
be obtained but the exact choice of ratio
and the focal length at the wide end of
the zoom will depend very much on
what is required from the lens.
22
Range extender
A zoom lens can be fitted with an internal
range-extender lens system which allows the
zoom to be used on a different set of focal
lengths. A 2x extender on the 14 x 8.5 zoom
would transform the range from 8.5 - 119 mm
to 17 - 238 mm but it may also lose 2 stops
approaching maximum focal length of (238
mm).
23
Zoom Lenses
 A zoom lens, is made up of lots of glass,
some of which moves and all of which
absorbs and scatters light.
 The quality and range of the modem
zoom lens is second to none, reducing
the need to change lenses unless for a
specific need.
24
Prime Lenses
 Prime lenses (lenses of fixed focal
length) from wide angle to tele photo.
 Have the advantages of greater speed.
 Allow more light to be transmitted
through the body of the lens.
 Greater resolving power.
 Minimum subject-to-lens focussing
distances improved.
25
Macro Photography
 Ranges of special lenses that can be hired
and some zooms have this facility built in.
 The extended focusing needed to achieve a
sharp image alters the light transmissions
and depth of field, etc. but shouldn’t worry
those working with decent viewing facilities.
 It goes without saying a decent tripod is a
must.
26
The ‘speed’ of a lens
 This relates to the ability of a given lens
to transmit a large amount of light.
 Prime lenses normally have the edge
over a zoom. There are also other
advantages such as quality and
resolution of the image, but with the
onset of modern zoom lenses some of
these can be argued.
27
The ‘speed’ of a lens
 Speed is important in low key or very
low light conditions where you want
maximum aperture and still retain
quality.
 Prime lenses often have wide diameters
giving minimum F-number and yet are
still compact and manageable.
 They are in the main faster.
28
f-number
 The f-number of a lens is a method of
indicating how much light passes
through the lens. It is proportional to
lens diameter and inversely proportional
to focal length. For a given focal length,
the larger the aperture of the lens, the
smaller its f-number and the brighter the
image it produces.
29
f-number

1.4 2 2.8 4 5.6 8 11 16 22
30
f-number
 Each division on this scale is called a
‘stop’. Half a division would be a ‘half
stop’. The effective aperture of a zoom
is not its actual diameter, but the
diameter of the image of the diaphragm
seen from in front of the lens. This is
called the entrance pupil of the lens.
31
Story-telling with
Focal Length
 Director use a viewfinder. Assuming he,
or she, is not posing (although many
do!), what they are actually doing is
looking to find the right focal length
lenses and subject distance to tell their
story.
32
Story-telling with
Focal Length
 Once you have settled on a lens size
and subject distance you have to be
careful to follow this as any changes
can alter perspective.
33
Story-telling with
Focal Length
 To the extremes, we have all seen the
interviewee whose nose seems twice
the size of her face, caused by the short
focus wide angle lens on the camera
being held too close to subject. Or the
long focal length lens shot of the train
approaching the station all crunched up
when the doors open.
34
Story-telling with
Focal Length
 Perspective plays a significant role in
story telling and is part of the
director/cameraman's creative skill - but
it needs to be understood.
35
Story-telling with
Focal Length
 This applies to documentary as much as to
drama, although clearly in documentary work
you may not have much time to consider such
niceties.
 Mismatching of shots, changes of subject-tolens distances and lens sizes (and thus
perspective) are all there ready to catch the
unwary. People do notice.
36
Story-telling with
Focal Length
 It is not for nothing a major part of set
design is to ensure the camera can get
in the right place to give the correct
perspective.
37
Story-telling with
Focal Length
 The type of shot created by a certain
focal length is not difficult to learn,
neither are its limitations and benefits.
 Once you have this knowledge you can
apply it with confidence
38
Angle of view
 The approximate horizontal angle of view of a
fixed focal length lens can be calculated by
using its focal length and the size of the pickup sensors of the camera.
 For most broadcast cameras (2/3 inch CCDs)
the formula would be:
angle of view = 2 tan-1 8.8 mm (width of CD)
2 x focal length (mm)
39
Calculating angle of
view
40
Ramping
 When zooming in, entrance pupil
becomes larger until it equals diameter
of focusing lens group and cannot
increase in size, f-drop or ramping may
cause underexposure at low light levels.
 Increasing the diameter of the focusing
lens group to avoid ramping increases
the weight and the cost of the lens.
41
Ramping
F drop of a zoom lens
42
Entrance pupil
 In low light conditions (e.g. twilight
evening sports events) when the lens
aperture may be at its widest at the start
of a zoom-in, the picture may be
underexposed when the zoom reaches
its longest focal length.
43
Entrance Pupil
44
Adjusting flange-back
(back focus)
1. Set the IRIS selector to Manual.
2. Place star burst lens chart at approx.
3 m or more and open aperture to
maximum. Adjust for correct exposure by
using either ND filters or adjusting light on
the chart.
3. Zoom in on star burst chart.
4. Adjust for sharp focus on chart with front
focus ring.
45
Adjusting flange-back
(back focus)
5. Zoom out to widest angle.
6. Loosen the flange-back (fF) adjustment
ring lock screw.
7. Adjust fF for optimum definition on chart.
Do not touch zoom focus ring. (NB
FLANGE-BACK position should be close
to standard marked position on lens)
46
Adjusting flange-back
(back focus)
8. Repeat steps 4 through to 7 until focus is
correct at telephoto and wide angle
positions.
9. Tighten the fF adjustment ring lock screw.
Switch in RANGE EXTENDER. Zoom in
and focus. Zoom out and check that zoom
holds focus over complete range.
47
Knowledge = Creative
Power
48
Camera Line-up
Colour Temperature
 Colour television transmission relies on
an additive colour system of green, red
and blue combining in different ratios to
produce all the colours in the spectrum.
49
Camera Line-up
Colour Temperature
 A combination of
30% of red +
 59% of green +
 11% of blue
will produce one unit of white and it is white
that requires the greatest attention in
camcorder line-up.

50
Camera Line-up
Colour Temperature
 Colour temperature range
A convenient way of defining the colour
of a light source is to quote its colour
temperature in Kelvin (K). Typical
values of everyday light sources are:
51
Camera Line-up
Colour Temperature
Average summer
sunlight
5500K
Morning/afternoon
sunlight
4000—5000K
Sunrise/sunset
2000—3000K
Tungsten lamp
3200K
52
Camera Line-up
Colour Temperature
 Colour cameras are designed to operate in a
tungsten environment. Processing of the
output from the Red, Green and Blue sensors
is normalized to signal levels produced by a
scene lit with tungsten lighting (3200K). When
the camera is exposed to daylight, it requires
significant changes to the red channel and
blue channel gains to achieve a ‘white
balance’.
53
Camera Line-up
Colour Temperature
 To ‘equalize’ the daylight to tungsten the
camera is fitted with a filter wheel in
front of the light-splitting block. This
allows the insertion of a minus blue filter
(Wratten 85B) for scenes when the
camera is exposed to daylight (5600K
filter position).
54
Camera Line-up
Colour Temperature
 The filter loses approximately one stop
of sensitivity. It is necessary therefore to
increase the lighting level accordingly.
When operating in daylight,
approximately twice the scene
illumination is required compared with
the same scene lit by tungsten light.
55
Camera Line-up
Colour Temperature
 Note that the 3200K filter position used for
tungsten lighting is a clear glass.
 The ‘electronic blue’ device fitted in some
cameras allows daylight colour balance with
no loss of light using filter position 1 - clear
glass.
 This can be useful in emergencies to gain a
stop of sensitivity or in circumstances where
one has total control of the ‘daylight’ (e.g.
when using HMIs in an enclosed location).
56
Neutral density filter
Density
Transmission
of light
Equivalent
stops
Example of
reduction in
f-number
OND
0
100%
0 stop
f 1 .4
1/2ND
0.3
50%
1 stop
f2
1/4ND
0.6
25%
2 stops
f 2.8
1/8ND
0.9
12.5%
3 stops
f4
1/16ND
1.2
6.25%
4 stops
f 5.6
1/32ND
1/64ND
1.5
1.8
3.12%
1.56%
5 stops
6 stops
f8
f 11
Neutral
density
filter
57
White Balance
 Because the colour temperature of
different light sources and mixture of
light sources varies, it is essential to
select the correct filter and white
balance the camera whenever you
suspect a change has occurred.
58
White Balance
 The white object must be illuminated by same
lighting conditions as the one used for
recording.
 The reference white must be near centre of
frame and not less than 20% of picture area.
It should be evenly lit with respect to colour
and shading and contain no bright highlights.
 Select filter to match colour temperature of
light illuminating white object.
59
Checking the white
balance by recording on tape
 The white balance can be checked on
tape by recording a white object and
then on replay pressing CTDM button.
While holding it pressed, check that
CTDM picture in viewfinder matches the
following diagram.
60
Checking the white
balance by recording on tape
White area
Original Picture
If the white balance has been
adjusted correctly, brightness will
be equal over these three areas
CTDM Picture
61
Using A and B
white balance memory
 It is sometimes possible to white balance a
daylight exterior on filter 1 (3200K). If this
value is memorized on memory A and a
tungsten-lit interior is memorized on memory
B, a development shot can start exterior on A,
and on the point of transition on entering the
interior, memory B can be selected and an
instant white balance is accomplished.
62
White Balance
 White balancing is pointing the camera
at a bit of white paper and pressing the
switch/button, what could be simpler?
 WRONG! or dangerously close to being
wrong! To see why, let's consider what
the camera does when you white
balance.
63
White Balance
 In a broadcast 3CCD camera, the light
coming from the lens is split into three colour
components, red, green and blue. All colours
in the visible spectrum can be synthesised
through a combination of these three colours
(RGB) and, from the camera's point of view,
'white' light is an equal combination of all
three. So, when you perform a white balance,
the camera's circuitry adjusts the output of
the three CCD's to equal (maximum) voltage
on the brightest portion of the image, as it
assumes that this area is white.
64
White Balance fill the
whole of the screen.
 Immediately, one cardinal rule to observe is,
fill the whole of the screen with the white
reference. Yes, I know we're told that the
camera only needs the white to fill 50% (or
even less!) of the frame, but if you happen to
have a brighter area in the frame (eg. a
mirror, or highly reflective silver, aluminium,
metal, etc) you run the risk of it producing a
brighter reflection than your foreground white
level, which could be any colour!
65
White Balance
 Cameras may automatically adjust their
iris when you press the white balance
switch/button, so the camera exposes
for the brightest area in frame before
white balancing on it.
 Readjust the iris to the correct exposure
before recording.
66
Fill The Frame
 Fill the frame and expose the picture so that
the card registers close to peak white (the
onset of zebra patterning, depending on the
threshold of the zebra setting). Care: do not
overexpose. If in doubt, back off to the onset
of the zebra. If the camera is overexposed,
the signals from the CCD’s are going into the
clipper, and this could all too easily produce
an incorrect white balance. (If in doubt, set
the lens iris to auto exposure whilst you
perform the white balance. This should
obviate the problem:)
67
Reference White
 Just as important, you must select your
reference 'white' with care, not just any old
notebook, tissue, newspaper that's handy. I
suggest you carry a piece of (non-glossy
surfaced) matt white card (as opposed to
paper, which is too easily crumpled, marked,
torn, blown at different angles in the wind,
etc.) which has no colour cast, since ideally,
you should use the same piece of reference
white throughout a shoot. (Light grey is also
OK, as long as you're certain it's a neutral
grey.)
68
Positioning
 Care must be taken in positioning the white
card. Make sure it is held such that the 'white'
source of light to which you want to balance is
the only illumination falling on it. For example,
if you are in town at night, and there are
flashing neon lights, moving car headlights,
illuminated shop windows, traffic lights, zebra
crossings, etc you may need to move from
the shot position to do a white balance, in
order to ensure that your main source of
illumination ('white' light) is the only one
falling on your white card.
69
Held Stable
 Ensure the card is held stable, and that
its angle to the light source doesn't alter
whilst white balancing. Instil into your
long-suffering assistant, sound
recordist, PA, director, producer that it
mustn't move at all until you're satisfied
with the balance.
70
Held Stable
 If the card is accidentally moved whilst
the camera is white balancing you may
pick up a stray reflection of unwanted
light. Since the card should fill frame,
whilst you're looking in the viewfinder to
check the colour temperature readout,
you may not notice an unintentional
change in angle of card position.
71
Held Stable
 Ensure the card is held stable, and that
its angle to the light source doesn't alter
whilst white balancing. Instil into your
long-suffering assistant, sound
recordist, PA, director, producer that it
mustn't move at all until you're satisfied
with the balance.
72
Daylight and Tungsten
 Daylight is much bluer than tungsten light; or
looked at the other way round, tungsten is
orange compared to daylight. The human
eye/brain automatically compensates for the
colour of light falling on a scene, and we see
the 'correct' colour. Unfortunately, cameras do
not have this automatic ability (or not reliably,
as yet!) So we have to show them what we
want them to read as 'white' in any given
scene.
73
Daylight and Tungsten
 Both daylight and tungsten light sources have
continuous spectra, in other words, light from
either source passing through a prism
produces a 'rainbow' spectrum, a blend of all
colours from darkest red through to deepest
violet, with no discernible gaps between
individual colours. This is the 'type' of light
that the camera expects to see, a continuous
spectrum, when it performs a white balance.
74
Colour Temperature
 The 'colour' of light is quoted as a colour
temperature in degrees Absolute, called
Kelvin, which are the same 'size' degrees as
Celsius, but starting at absolute zero
(-273° C) as 0° K, thus making 0° C = 273° K,
and 100° C = 373° K. The figure for the colour
temperature of a specific source of light is
derived from the equivalent temperature of a
black body radiator producing an identical
colour.
75
Wrong Colour!
 Unless the camera registers 'white'
correctly, then people will certainly
appear the wrong colour! And it's people
who are the main subjects on television
over 90% of the time. If they don't look
right, viewers will spot your mistake
straight away. Care must always be
taken to avoid any green or blue cast on
white skin.
76
Sequence of Shots
 No shot stands alone, and in any given
location, and within a sequence of shots, or
scene, you must endeavour to maintain
consistency with your white balance. In an
ideal world, you would white balance before
shooting a scene, and stay with that setting
until the end. Unfortunately, on location, life
rarely treats us that well, and knowing how
often to white balance is mostly a matter of
experience.
77
No change in your
lighting
 As long as there is no change in your
lighting set-up, which is probably
another way of saying, as long as you
aren't dependent on daylight
illumination for any picture area, then
you should only need to white balance
once before shooting.
78
No change in your
lighting
 Then, assuming you are working with
light sources with continuous spectra,
the only correction that may need to be
applied during post production will be a
small amount of plus or minus blue in
order to correctly colour match shots (to
allow for any fluctuations in mains
voltage and fading gels throughout the
shoot).
79
Daylight Uncontrollable
 Daylight illumination is totally natural, often
looks great, but it's uncontrollable. A day of
sunshine and showers may well drive you
round the bend with changes in both level of
illumination and colour temperature. Even
though you white balance with every change
in the weather, you must warn production that
they may almost certainly have to perform
some colour correction during post
production.
80
White Balance
Confusion
 This is where confusion arises over
what white balance can and cannot do.
Let's imagine that you're on location
indoors, and you start shooting a scene
in the morning, lit by daylight - 5,600K
(and/or augmented with tungsten lights
which have full CTB gels), and perform
a white balance on position A.
81
White Balance
Confusion
 Subsequently, white balance on the
same scene during the evening, on
position B, because the colour 'values'
of objects within the scene will not be
the same, although white (and shades
of grey) will be 'colour' correct, ie.
neutral.
82
White Balance
Confusion
 This difference in perceived colour 'values' is
fundamental to the 'phenomenon' of colour
itself. Objects derive their colour (as
perceived by the eye/brain) from the
wavelengths of light they reflect, so
illuminating said objects with light differing
colour temperatures automatically alters their
appearance to the eye (and the camera), in
relationship to each other. Viewing objects in
everyday life (and therefore in 'real' time), we
are unaware of these differences, due to the
eye/brain 'automatic' compensation.
83
White Balance
Confusion
 So, should the shooting of a particular
scene be extended after daylight has
disappeared?
 You must continue to work under light at
the original colour temperature of
5,600K (or whatever your original white
balance reference displayed) to ensure
continuity of colour values.
84
Continuity of
Colour Values
 Changing lens can affect colour relationships.
The types of glass used in lenses vary
between make and model, and even if you
stick to one manufacturers lens range, the
age and state of the lens also affects light
transmission. Thus, a small amount of colour
correction may need to be applied in post
production for such a minor event as a lens
change!
85
Continuity of
Colour Values
 If you're using more than one camera,
irrespective of make and model lens
combination, white balancing alone is
unlikely to result in pictures that are fully
colour matched. Even white balancing
simultaneously on the same white
reference cannot guarantee pictures
having the same colour values.
86
Continuity of
Colour Values
 There are too many variable such as
lens, internal (and external, if in use)
filters, chip block, and camera line-up.
 You will be unable to cut or edit
between shots from separate cameras
without some difference in colour being
perceptible.
87
Continuity of
Colour Values
 Lining up the cameras side by side can
alleviate most of these problems but for
critical applications the only way to
completely colour match several
cameras is by using a vision operator,
or in post production.
88
Location and Operation
 The location and operation of each
switch/button for white balancing on the
different makes/models of camera
you're likely to use can be different.
89
Location and Operation
 On Sony cameras, you press the switch
up and let go, but on Ikegami cameras,
you press a button and hold it in until
the viewfinder display confirms that the
camera has white balanced. So, before
you use any piece of equipment for the
first time, do ensure you've located the
relevant controls, and confirmed how
they operate.
90
White Balance
The Rules!
 On the camera's filter wheel, select the filter
number providing the closest match to the
colour temperature of your main light source.
 Select A or B on camera switch, to store the
white balance.
 Use a matt white card, and keep it
protected/clean (carry a matching spare).
91
White Balance
The Rules!
 Hold it stable, and positioned/angled so that it




is illuminated by your chosen 'white' light.
Zoom in to the white card to fill the frame.
Expose the card to peak white/onset of zebra
(care: do not overexpose).
Press the white balance switch/button.
Read the colour temperature displayed in the
viewfinder, check – is it sensible?
92
White Balance
Notes
 Left and right, when referring to
cameras, is determined by the
cameraman's operating position, and is
thus the same as camera left and
camera right.
93
White Balance
Notes
 The 'colour' of any object seen by the
eye is produced by the wavelengths of
light that, that object reflects. Thus
some wavelengths are absorbed and
some reflected. 'White' light comprises a
complete spectrum of colours, and the
combination of the reflected
wavelengths produces the perceived
'colour' or shade of the object.
94
White Balance
Notes
 CTB: Colour Temperature Blue,
accurate conversion filters which are
available in a wide range for colour
correction, the most common ones in
use being full, half, quarter and eighth
blue gels.
 CTO: Colour Temperature Orange, with
an equivalent range .
95
White Balance
Notes
 The consistency of gels is problematic,
as they discolour through use due to
high lamp temperatures. This
alters/distorts their colour temperature
shifting properties.
 Keep a good stock of new gel, and
replace as often as necessary.
96
White Black Balance
Notes
 The Sony BVW300/400, if you push this
switch down, you perform a black
balance. The camera automatically
caps up (the iris stops down), and
checks the 'black' level of each of the
R G & B channels, and adjusts the
output if necessary to ensure they're
equal, ie. zero.
97
Black Balance
 Black balance is normally only required
if the camera has not been in use for
some time or if the camera has been
moved between radically different
temperatures. First adjust the white
balance to equalize the gains and then
black balance (then white balance
again).
98
Contrast Range
 Variation of brightness is the contrast
range of the scene.
 The relationship between the brightest
part of the subject and the darkest part
is the contrast ratio. The average
exterior contrast ratio is approximately
150 :1 but it can be as high as 1000:1.
99
Contrast Range
 Achieving the correct exposure for any
specific shot therefore requires
reproducing the detail in the highlights
as well as in the shadows of the scene.
 Skin tones need to be set between 70%
and 75% of peak white
100
Contrast Range
 Sounds deceptively simple, especially
when there is a specific control on the
camera to do the job for you (auto-iris),
but like many other descriptions of
television technique, a simple statement
can gloss over a multitude of practical
problems.
101
Video Contrast Range
 The contrast ratios of everyday location and
interiors can range from 20:1 to 1000:1, a
video camera can only record a scene range
of approximately 40:1
 The result of recording a contrast range
greater than the camera can handle is that
highlights of the scene will appear a uniform
white - details in them will be burnt out and
the darker tones of the scene will be a
uniform black.
102
Video Contrast Range
 The limiting factor for highlight detail in
high-contrast scenes is the peak white
clipper circuits and the ‘knee’ of signal
amplification in the camera.
103
Video Contrast Range
Peak White Clippers
 There are three peak white clippers,
one in each colour channel, and their
function is to limit any part of the scene
that would produce a signal greater than
a pre-set value. Their effect is to render
all gradations in brightness above the
‘clip’ level as white - to burn out any
overexposed parts of the picture.
104
Video Contrast Range
Knee
 The ‘knee’, which is introduced into the
camera head amplifiers, progressively
compresses highlights which otherwise
would be lost in the peak white clipper.
It extends the camera’s response to a
high contrast range but with some loss
of linearity.
105
Camera Response
Without ‘Knee’
0.7V
Clip level
0.6V
0.5V
0.4V
0.3V
0.45 gamma
0.2V
Original contrast range
Log light in
Recorded contrast range
106
Camera Response
With ‘Knee’
0.7V
Clip level
0.6V
0.5V
0.4V
0.3V
0.45 gamma
0.2V
Original contrast range
Log light in
Recorded contrast range
107
Dynamic Contrast
Control
 Another way of accommodating a high-
contrast scene is to alter the camera’s
transfer characteristics by using the
DCC circuit. This compresses highlights
to allow a greater contrast range than
normal.
108
Peak white and black
 A camera’s contrast range is determined by
the noise level which limits the darkest area
of the scene which can be reproduced and
the video peak level of maximum signal which
clips the highlight detail.
 When a high contrast scene such as an
exterior in bright sunlight is recorded, most of
the detail in the highlights will be reproduced
as solid white.
109
Peak white and black
 If a highlight compression circuit is used
(DCC), the highlight part of the signal is
non-linear amplified. As the magnitude
and the size of the highlight areas
increase, a ‘knee’ circuit compresses
the highlight to keep it within the normal
peak video level. Increasing the
highlight will reduce the knee threshold
still further.
110
Exposing for highlights
 A highlight part of the shot may produce
a signal 5 times peak white level can be
compressed into the normal video
dynamic range. This means that the
darker areas of the picture can be
correctly exposed while at the same
time maintaining some detail in the
highlight.
111
Exposing for highlights
 If someone was standing in a room against a
window and it was necessary to expose for
exterior detail and the face, without additional
lighting or filtering the windows, it would not
be possible to reproduce detail in both face
and exterior. Using highlight compression, the
highlights outside the window would be
squashed by the DCC circuit and although
their relative brightness to each other would
not be faithfully reproduced, the compression
would allow the reproduction of detail across
a greater range to be recorded.
112
Transient highlights
 If DCC is used with a normal contrast
range scene (below 40:1), there is the
risk that highlights will be distorted and
the compression may result in a lower
contrast reproduction than the original.
113
Factors limiting
contrast range
White clip
Normal camera
dynamic range
Noise floor
Black detail
114
Factors limiting
contrast range
 The contrast range of a camera is
limited by noise level in darkest area of
picture and maximum signal is fixed by
the 700mV video peak level of the PAL
system. Any detail above white clip
level will be reproduced as white.
115
Variable slope
highlight control
100%
Log V out
Extra compression
Slope varied in proportion to
amount of highlight details
that would be clipped
Knee point fixed
-2
-1
0
+1
Stops overexposed
+2
116
Variable knee point
highlight control
Log V out
100%
Angle of slope fixed
Knee point moved to keep
highlights below clip level
-2
-1
0
+1
Stops overexposed
+2
117
The Interview
‘talking head’
 Video pictures of faces are the most
demanding in achieving correct
exposure and usually require exposure
levels that are high but are free from
burn-out in highlight areas.
118
The Interview
Exposure continuity
 An important consideration when
shooting the same face in different
locations or lighting situations is to
achieve some measure of continuity in
face tones.
119
Relationship between face
tones and reflectance
Signal, in millivolts
TV grey scale
% Reflectivity
Typical surfaces
700
TV white
60
White cloth
Newspaper
Light grey
476*
40
34
Face tones
31
Medium grey
Dark grey
TV black
20
Concrete
15
Blonde hair
7.5
Dark hair
4
Black paper
3
*Zebra setting on 300 camera as delivered — 68% of peak white.
120
Zebra Exposure
Indicator

The zebra pattern is a visual indicator in the
viewfinder when areas of the picture have
reached a certain signal level. If the zebra
exposure indicator is switched on, those
elements of the image that are above this
pre-set level are replaced by diagonal
stripes in the picture. The cameraman can
respond by closing the iris to adjust the
exposure until part or all of the zebra
diagonals have been removed.
121
Selecting zebra level
 The exposure point at which the zebra
indicator is triggered can be a personal
operational preference, but criteria to
consider when setting that point are:
122
Selecting zebra level
1. If there is a ‘pool’ of cameras in use, then
that point should be standard on all
cameras.
2. The onset point should be close to full
exposure but should warn before full burnout occurs.
3. The zebra strip indicator should not obscure
important picture information such as the
face, but it should indicate when flesh tones
are in danger of going over into
overexposure.
123
Selecting zebra level
 Some UK zebra onset levels are
90 - 95% for RGB-driven systems and
68% for luminance systems, but the
final limiting factor on exposure level is
loss of detail, either to noise in the
blacks or burn-out in the peak white
clipper. Both losses are irrecoverable.
124
Audio Recording Tracks
Tape upper edge
Audio 2
Audio 1
Direction of head travel
Y Track
AFM sound
recorded in ‘C’ track
C Track
Direction of tape travel
Control
Time Code
Reference edge
125
Betacam Sound
 Audio recording tracks on Betacam
Betacam SP has the facility of recording
four audio tracks. Two of these tracks
(Channel 1 and Channel 2) are
recorded on the longitudinal tracks and
Channel 3 and Channel 4 are recorded
on the AFM tracks encoded into the
vision area of the tape.
126
Betacam Sound
 Four separate audio inputs can be
recorded on the BW-5PS VT recorder. If
only the two longitudinal tracks are used
(Channel 1 and Channel 2), the inputs
can be switched to duplicate the audio
recordings onto the FM tracks (Channel
3 and Channel 4).
127
Betacam Sound
 The BVP300 and BVP400 series
camcorders have a maximum of two
separate audio inputs that are recorded
on Channel 1 and Channel 2.
 These tracks can be duplicated on
Channel 3 and Channel 4.
 No separate audio input can be plugged
direct to the FM Channels 3 and 4.
128
Betacam Sound
 In ‘one-man’ operation, always use
Channel 1 as there are two gain
controls, one of which can be monitored
and controlled through the viewfinder.
129
Betacam Sound
Mic Front
 When an audio channel is switched to
this position, any microphone connected
to the front audio input (e.g. cameramounted) will be selected.
130
Betacam Sound
Mic Rear
 This position enables the user to plug a
microphone into the connector at the
rear of the camera. On some Beta
format cameras, a separate switch can
be found under the Mic input marked
+48 volts (Phantom Power) that
supplies power to the microphone if
required.
131
Betacam Sound
Line
 When an audio channel is switched to
this position, an external audio mixer
can be connected. All microphones to
be used are connected and controlled
via this mixer and its input sensitivity to
the Betacam is (0dB), that is known as
Line Level. Line input can also be used
for a feed from a public address system
mixer before amplification.
132
Audio Levels
Sound intensity range
 The intensity of sound is a function of
the pressure variation set up in the
atmosphere. Intensity is proportional to
pressure squared. A microphone is
used to convert sound energy into
electrical energy and the voltage
produced is proportional to the sound
pressure.
133
Audio Levels
Sound intensity range
 The range of intensities from quietest to
loudest is the dynamic range of that sound
situation. For example, the ratio of the
loudest sound produced by an orchestra to
the quietest sound can be as much as
60 - 70dB in an orchestral performance. This
dynamic range is greater than can be
transmitted and therefore sound control and
possibly sound compression is required
when recording large variations in sound
levels.
134
Audio Levels
Decibels
 Our ears do not respond to changes in
sound intensity in even, linear increments. To
hear an equal change in intensity, the sound
level must double at each increase rather
than changing in equal steps. To match the
ear’s response to changes in sound
intensity, it is convenient to measure the
changes in the amplitude of the audio signal
by using a logarithmic ratio - decibels (dB).
Decibels are a ratio of change and are
scaled to imitate the ear’s response to
changing sound intensity.
135
Audio Levels
Decibels
 If a sound intensity doubles in volume,
then there would be a 3dB increase in
audio level. If it was quadrupled, there
would a 6dB increase.
136
Audio Levels
Zero level voltage
 Just as light is converted into a TV signal
with a standard peak amplitude of O.7V, so
sound energy when it is converted into
electrical energy requires a standard signal,
a baseline voltage to which all changes can
be referred. This is known as zero level and
the standard voltage selected is 0.775V —
the voltage across 600ohms (a common
input and output impedance of audio
equipment) when 1mW is developed.
137
Audio Levels
Zero level voltage
 1000Hz is the frequency of the
standard zero level signal. Increasing
or decreasing sound intensity will alter
the level of this voltage.
138
Audio Levels
Sound monitoring
 Two types of meter are used to measure and
monitor changes in audio level. A peak
programme meter (PPM) measures peaks of
sound intensity. A programme volume meter
(VU) measures average level of sound and
gives a better indication of loudness but at
the expense of missing brief high-intensity
peaks that could cause distortion. When
relying on a VU meter, always ensure that
the needle only occasionally goes into the
red zone on the meter display. Try to
maintain a signal at - 2dB.
139
Audio Levels
Microphone sensitivity
 The sensitivity or output of a
microphone is expressed in units of
millivolt / pascal (mV/Pa) but more
commonly quoted in comparison to
0dB line level in decibels (dB). The
more negative the dB figure, the less
sensitive the microphone.
140
Audio Levels
Microphone sensitivity
 For example, the output of a hand-held
moving coil microphone will be in the region
of -75dB and is less sensitive than the output
of a short condenser microphone which will
be around -55dB.
 Usually the camera microphone input
sensitivity is around -70dB; therefore most
types of microphone can be used directly
into the camera.
141
Audio Levels
Power supplies to
microphones
 Before plugging a microphone into an audio
input, check the position of the phantom
power switch. Switch the supply to ON only if
the condenser microphone requires a 48V
supply. For an ‘in line’ condenser
microphone (one fitted with a battery), check
the condition and charge of the batteries in
the microphone.
142
Audio Levels
Sound monitoring
through the viewfinder
 If you are using a single microphone
into the camera, always use TRACK
ONE:
1. Having connected the mic and selected
mic position, turn the gain control at the
side panel of the camera to maximum.
143
Audio Levels
Sound monitoring
through the viewfinder
2. Select the viewfinder for metering of audio.
Obtain a sound level and adjust the front
gain control on the viewfinder to bring down
the level to three dashes on the viewfinder
audio level indicator (equivalent to 0dB).
Reduce rear audio gain on side panel if
sufficient attenuation cannot be achieved.
3. You now have attenuation and gain should it
be required on the front audio control.
144
Audio Levels
Audible sound checks
 Sound quality can be checked by
headphone or speaker:-
145
Audio Levels
Audible sound checks
 PB - To monitor playback sound during
recording which will supply a mix of
Channels 1 and 2. There is often the
interference of time code spill and therefore
the audio monitoring on PB provides a
confidence check (i.e. sound has been
recorded - ‘an echo’) and not a quality
check.
 EE - Amplified audio signal can be checked
before it is recorded.
146
Audio Levels
Problems
 If a microphone is connected to the camera
mic input with the correct power supply, but
the level control has to be placed at
maximum to obtain the slightest movement
of the meter (i.e. indicating low sound level
or faulty mic), the end result will be a high
level of unwanted noise from both the
microphone amplifier along with line buzz
transmitted from the viewfinder.
147
Audio Levels
Problems
 If the output of an external sound mixer were
to be wrongly connected to the mic input
(instead of to line), the result will be that the
input gain control will be set at its minimum,
and maximum deflection of the meters will
show. Any audio recorded will be overload
distorted and will certainly cause crossmodulation distortion on the second audio
track.
148
Audio recording on
video tape
Percentage of modulation on tape
10% 16% 25%
Into noise
40% 63% 80% 100%
Compression
Dynamic range of audio recording
Keep recording within these limits
-8dB
-6dB
-4dB
-2dB
-1dB
Into distortion
‘Headroom’ for Peaks ……
VU meter measures average audio level
-10dB
Distortion
0dB
1dB
2dB
4dB
6dB
8db
10dB
15dB
20dB
149
Range of Sounds
Human minimum
0dB
audibility level
10dB
Pneumatic drill at
80dB
15m
90dB Loud shout at 15m
20dB Whisper at 5m
100dB Jet take-off at 600m
30dB
110dB Disco at full volume
40dB Interior urban home
120dB Jet take-off at 60m
50dB
130dB
60dB
Average
conversation at 1 m
Painful level for
humans
140dB Jet take-off at 3Om
70dB
150
Range of Sounds
 The limited dynamic range of audio
recording can be shifted up or down the
spectrum of human hearing to record
required segment of sound intensities.
151
PPM Meter
 PPM registers peaks of audio level
 Each increment on a PPM = 4dB
 Zero level = 4
152
Time Code Tracks
Betacam Tape
Audio 2
Audio 1
Direction of head travel
Y Track
C Track
Direction of tape travel
Control
Time Code
Longitudinal time code is recorded on the time code track. Unless
the tape is moving it cannot be decoded and displayed
153
Time Code
03:10:45:18
Minutes
Hours
Frames
Seconds
154
Time Code
 Time code enables every recorded
frame of video to be numbered. This
allows precise identification when
editing. There are two methods of
recording the identification number.
155
Time Code
Longitudinal time code
 Longitudinal time code (LTC) is recorded with
a fixed head on a track reserved for time
code. It can be decoded at normal playback
speed and at fast forward or rewind, but it
cannot be read unless the tape is moving as
there is no replayed signal to be decoded.
 It is recorded once every frame as a series of
pulses (binary digits) whose repetition rate
changes according to whether it is recording
0’s or l’s.
156
Time Code
Vertical interval time code
 Vertical
interval time code (VITC)
numbers are time-compressed to fit the
duration of one TV line and recorded as
a pseudo video signal on one of the
unused lines between frames. It is
recorded as a variation in signal
amplitude once per frame as binary
digits. 0 equals black and 1 equals peak
white.
157
Time Code
Vertical interval time code
 The Beta format cameras have the
ability to insert VITC twice on two nonconsecutive lines. They are factory-set
to insert the VITC signal between lines
19 and 21 for PAL but there is provision
for another choice of line position for
VITC insertion independent of the first
choice.
158
Time Code
Code word
 Every frame contains an 80-bit code
word which contains ‘time bits’ (eight
decimal numbers) recording hours,
minutes, seconds, frames and other
digital synchronizing information. All this
is updated every frame but there is
room for additional ‘user bit’ information.
159
Time Code
User bit
 User bit allows up to nine numbers and
an A to F code to be programmed into
the code word which is recorded every
frame. Unlike the time bits, the user bits
remain unchanged until re-programmed.
They can be used to identify production,
cameraman, etc.
160
Time Code
 There are two ways of starting time
code: Record run
 Free run.
161
Time Code
Record Run
 Record run only records a frame identification
when the camera is recording. The time code
is set to zero at the start of the day’s
operation and a continuous record is
produced on each tape covering all takes. It
is customary practice to record the tape
number in place of the hour section on the
time code. For example, the first cassette of
the day would start 01.00.00.00, and the
second cassette would start 02.00.00.00.
162
Time Code
Record Run
 Record run is the preferred method of
recording time code on most
productions.
163
Time Code
Free Run
 In free run, the time code is set to the
actual time of day and when
synchronized is set to run continuously.
Whether the camera is recording or not,
the internal clock will continue to
operate. When the camera is recording,
the actual time of day will be recorded
on each frame.
164
Time Code
Free Run
 This mode of operation is useful in
editing when covering day-long events
such as conferences or sport. Any
significant action can be logged by time
as it occurs and can subsequently be
quickly found by reference to the time of
day code on the recording.
165
Time Code
Free Run
 In Free Run (Time of Day) - a change in
shot will produce a gap in time code
proportional to the amount of time that
elapsed between actual recordings:
166
Time Code
Free Run
Shot 1
(8 seconds)
Shot 2
(5 seconds)
Shot 3
(7 seconds)
200 frames
125 frames
175 frames
04:12:45:01 14:44:22:05 15:02:44:03
167
Time Code
Problems
 Missing time code numbers can cause
problems with edit controller when it
rolls back from intended edit point and
is unable to find time code number it
expects there (i.e. the time code of the
frame to cut on, minus the pre-roll time).
168
The Lighting Director
 The Lighting Director is at the hub of a
lot of peoples’ efforts - the Director, the
Set Designer, Make-up artist, Costume
Designer, Sound Supervisor, engineers
so the Lighting Director must get on with
people and be able to compromise. So,
personality is important as is the latent
ability to do the job.
169
Colour Temperature
 The intensity of a light source is defined
in Foot Candles or Lux and the colour of
a light source is defined in degrees
Kelvin. The Kelvin scale is based on the
light output of an incandescent source.
Incandescent light is produced by
heating an object to the point that visible
light is produced.
170
Colour Temperature
 When a metal (eg: tungsten) is heated it will
emit visible light when sufficient heat is
applied to it.
 If we were to apply heat to the tungsten,
increasing the degree of heat incrementally,
we could chart the relationship between the
heat applied and the colour of light emitted by
the tungsten.
171
Colour Temperature
 The Kelvin scale defines, in degrees
Kelvin, the colour of a light's output with
relationship to the degree of heat
applied to produce the specified colour
of light.
172
Colour Temperature
 A tungsten filament light bulb placed on a
dimmer illustrates this relationship. As the
electrical current is increased, more
resistance is created within the filament. This
increases the heat of the filament.
Decreasing the electrical current lowers the
resistance, thus reducing the heat in the
filament. When the heat of the filament is low,
an amber glow is produced. The filament
produces light that is less amber when the
heat is increased.
173
Colour Temperature
 The intensity of a light source does not
influence the Kelvin temperature. The Kelvin
scale measures the quality of light output and
not the quantity of the light output. A light
source operating at 3200 degrees Kelvin is
often used as a reference "white light" source
when balancing video cameras in a studio.
Tungsten will melt when it reaches 3500
degrees Kelvin.
174
Colour Temperature
 Light that is produced from sources
other than incandescent sources (eg:
arc sources) are given an approximate
Kelvin value. The approximate Kelvin
value given to an arc source does not
represent the spikes that occur within its
spectral distribution.
175
Colour Temperature
 When light sources of varying Kelvin
temperatures are mixed, they must be
adjusted to the reference "white light" source
the camera used during set-up.
 A camera balanced for 3200 degrees Kelvin
will reproduce light from a 5600 degree light
source with a blue tint.
 When 5600 degrees Kelvin is used as a line
up reference then a 3200 degree source will
appear with an amber tint.
176
Colour Temperature
 Colour correction gel is used to alter the
Kelvin output of the different light source.
CTO (colour temperature orange) gel is used
to alter a lights 5600 degree Kelvin output to
match a 3200 degree Kelvin light source.
 CTB (colour temperature blue) is used to alter
a 3200 degree Kelvin light source to match
the light output of a 5600 degree Kelvin light
source.
177
Colour Temperature
178
Colour Temperature
 NOTE: Sunlight is the light of the sun only.
Daylight is a combination of sunlight plus
skylight. The values given are approximate
because many factors affect colour
temperature.
 OUTDOORS: the sun angle, and the
conditions of the sky-clouds, haze, dust
particles-raise or lower the colour
temperature
179
Colour Temperature
 INDOORS: lamp age (and blackening),
voltage, type of reflectors and diffusers
affect tungsten bulbs all of these can
influence the actual colour temperature
of the light.
180
Colour Temperature
 Usually a change of 1 volt equals 10
degrees Kelvin. But this is true only
within a limited voltage range and does
not always apply to "booster voltage"
operation, since certain bulbs will not
exceed a certain colour temperature
regardless of the increase in voltage.
181
Approximate Correlated Colour Temperature
for Various Light Sources
Source
Degrees K
Artificial Light
Match Flame
1700
Candle Flame
1850
40-Watt Incandescent Tungsten Lamp
2650
75-Watt Incandescent Tungsten Lamp
2820
100-Watt Incandescent Tungsten Lamp
2865
500-Watt Incandescent Tungsten Lamp
2960
200-Watt Incandescent Tungsten Lamp
2980
1000-Watt Incandescent Tungsten Lamp
2990
182
Approximate Correlated Colour Temperature
for Various Light Sources
3200-Degree Kelvin Tungsten Lamp
3200
Molarc "Brute" with Yellow Flame
Carbons & YF-101 Filter (approx.)
3350
"C.P." (Colour Photography)
Studio Tungsten Lamp
3350
Photoflood or Reflector Flood Lamp
3400
Daylight Blue Photoflood Lamp
4800
White Flame Carbon Arc Lamp
5000
High-Intensity Sun Arc Lamp
5500
Xenon Arc Lamp
6420
183
Approximate Correlated Colour Temperature
for Various Light Sources
Daylight
Sunlight: Sunrise or Sunset
Sunlight: One Hour After Sunrise
Sunlight: Early Morning
Sunlight: Late Afternoon
Average Summer Sunlight at Noon
2000
3500
4300
4300
5400
184
Approximate Correlated Colour Temperature
for Various Light Sources
Direct Mid-Summer Sunlight
Overcast Sky
5800
6000
Average Summer Sunlight
(plus blue skylight)
6500
Light Summer Shade
Average Summer Shade
7100
8000
Summer Skylight Will Vary from
9500
to 30000
185
Filters (Gel)
 Coloured filters are used in lighting to
alter the output of a light source. A
"white light" source is comprised of a
range of colours within the visible
spectrum combining to create the white
light.
186
Filters (Gel)
 The use of colour filtration dates back to early
theatres where coloured "gel" (dyed gelatine)
was used to colour the lights. The term "gel"
is still in use, although today's most
commonly used coloured filters are plastic,
polyester or polycarbonate. Polycarbonate
filters tend to last longer than polyester based
filters. Glass filters are also used to colour
light.
187
Filters (Gel)
How it works
 A colour filter blocks unwanted colour
from the original light source and allows
the desired colour to pass through it. As
fig.1 shows the spectral colours that
create "white light" are stopped by the
green "gel" and only the specific green
range of the spectrum are allowed to
pass.
188
Filters (Gel)
How it works
 A filter cannot add portions of the
spectrum that do not inherently exist
within the specific light source itself.
189
Filters (Gel)
Absorption and Interference Filters
 Filters use two different methods of
blocking the unwanted portions of the
spectrum. Plastic based filters absorb
the unwanted portions of the spectrum.
This means that the infra-red (heat
produced from a tungsten bulb) will be
absorbed and cause the plastic to fade
and deteriorate.
190
Filters (Gel)
Absorption and Interference Filters
 Colours that block a large portion of the
infra-red will deteriorate quicker than a
filter that allows it to pass. A deep blue
filter will deteriorate quicker than a light
red filter when used in a tungsten light
source.
191
Filters (Gel)
Absorption and Interference Filters
 The second method is known as
interference. Dichroic filters, also known
as dichroic mirrors, reflect the unwanted
portions of the spectrum instead of
absorbing them. This type of filter only
interferes with the original light and then
allows the desired colour to pass
through it.
192
Filters (Gel)
Absorption and Interference Filters
 Dichroic filters last longer because they do
not absorb the infra-red and use glass as
their base. They can be shattered, like glass,
so care must be taken in the handling of this
type of filter. Dichroic reflectors are used in
some of today's lights to allow infra red to
pass out the back of the reflector while the
remaining light waves are reflected into the
front of the lighting instrument.
193
Filters (Gel)
Colour Correction
 When mixing two or more different light
sources (eg: tungsten and daylight) a main
source must be determined as your reference
white light source. The camera uses this
reference white to mix the portions of red,
green and blue to reproduce white correctly. If
the video camera uses a tungsten source,
when balancing, all other light sources used
in the scene should match the spectral
distribution of the tungsten source.
194
Filters (Gel)
Colour Correction
 Daylight shining in a window will appear
blue when seen by a video camera
adjusted for tungsten light. If you reduce
the blue portion of daylight's spectral
distribution and allow the red portions to
be dominate, then the daylight will be
closer to the tungsten light source in
colour.
195
Filters (Gel)
Colour Correction
 The filter range, designed to modify light
sources so they will have a similar
colour output, are termed colour
correction filters. The two most common
colour correction filters are grouped as: C.T.O. (colour temperature orange, to
alter daylight 5600 degrees Kelvin, to
tungsten).
196
Filters (Gel)
Colour Correction
 C.T.B. (colour temperature blue, to alter
tungsten 3200 degrees Kelvin, to
daylight). The range of colour correction
filters is wider than these two groups but
they are the two most commonly used
type of colour correction.
197
Filters (Gel)
Neutral Density
 Neutral Density, also known as ND, only
reduces the quantity of light that passes
through it. ND does not alter the original
spectral colours of the light source.
Daylight passing through ND will still be
blue when viewed by a camera set for
tungsten, only the total Foot Candle
level will be reduced.
198
Filters (Gel)
Neutral Density
 Colour correction C.T.O. is combined
with ND to create a single gel that will
convert 5600 degree Kelvin Daylight to
3200 degree Kelvin tungsten, while
reducing the total Foot Candle level.
This is commonly used on a bright
daylight window when lighting inside
with tungsten
199
Filters
 Optical filters may be solid, liquid, or
gaseous. These consist mainly of
colorants dissolved in a gelatin or in
cellulose acetate. Each filter, gelatin or
acetate, is standardized for spectral
transmittance and total transmittance by
special instruments which apply an
optical form of limit gauge to these
characteristics.
200
Filter factors
 Published filter factors apply strictly to
the particular lighting conditions used in
the laboratory where the factors were
determined. For scientific applications,
especially, the quality of light can vary
widely so that it may be desirable to
determine the filter factor for actual
working conditions.
201
Filter factors
Filter
Factor
+ Stops
Filter
Factor
+ Stops
Filter
Factor
+ Stops
1.25
1/2
4
2
12
3 2/3
1.5
2/3
5
2 1/3
40
5 1/3
2
1
6
2 2/3
100
6 2/3
2.5
11/2
8
3
1000
10
3
1 2/3
10
3 1/3
--
-202
Filter factors
 Each time a filter factor is doubled, the
exposure needs to be increased by 1
stop. As an example, a filter factor of 2
requires a 1 stop exposure increase. A
filter factor of 4 requires a 2 stop
exposure increase.
 Use this example for filter factors not
listed in the table
203
Light Balancing Filters
 Light-balancing filters make minor
adjustments in the colour quality of
illumination to obtain cooler (bluer) or
warmer (yellower) colour rendering
204
Light Balancing Filters
 One of the principle uses for Light Balancing
Filters is where light sources frequently
exhibit colour temperatures different than that
for which a colour film is balanced. When
using a colour temperature meter to
determine the colour temperature of
prevailing light, you can use the table below,
which converts the prevailing temperature to
either 3200 K or 3400 K.
205
Light Balancing Filters
Filter
Colour
Filter
Number
Exposure
Increase in
Stops*
82C + 82C
1 1/3
2490K
2610K
82C + 82B
1 1/3
2570K
2700K
82C + 82A
1
2650K
2780K
82C + 82
1
2720K
2870K
82C
2/3
2800K
2950K
82B
2/3
2900K
3060K
82A
1/3
3000K
3180K
82
1/3
3100K
3290K
To Obtain
To Obtain
3200K from: 3400K from:
Bluish
206
Light Balancing Filters
Filter
Colour
Filter
Number
Exposure
Increase in
Stops*
81
1/3
3300
3510
81A
1/3
3400
3630
81B
1/3
3500
3740
81C
1/3
3600
3850
81D
2/3
3700
3970
81EF
2/3
3850
4140
To Obtain
To Obtain
3200K from: 3400K from:
Yellowish
• These values are approximate. For critical work, check by
accurate tests, especially if you use more than one filter.
207
Colour Compensating
Filters
 Colour compensating filters control light
by attenuating principally the red, green,
or blue part of the spectrum. While
controlling one colour, the filter
transmits one or both of the other two
colours.
208
Colour Compensating
Filters
 Colour compensating filters can make
changes to the colour balance of
pictures recorded on colour films, or
compensate for deficiencies in the
spectral quality of a light source.
209
Colour Compensating
Filters
 For optimum results, use the single
recommended colour compensating
filter rather than combining filters (for
example, CC20Y + CC20M = 20R, so
using 20R only is preferable).
210
Colour Compensating
Filters
 Gelatin Filters/Colour Compensating
Filters have excellent optical quality and
are suitable for image forming optical
systems over-the-camera lens, for
example.
211
Colour Compensating
Filters
 Dividing the normal exposure index (EI)
of the film by the filter factor will give
you the effective EI for the film with that
filter on the lens.
 Example: normal EI 100 FF 2
(one t-stop) = EI 50.
212
Lighting
 “Lighting is the art of establishing a
sense of place and time and that it
provides a tool for amplifying moods
and emotional content of stories."
213
Lighting
 Trust your eyes, instincts and
experience rather than trying to judge
the aesthetic quality of images
displayed on videotape monitors when
shooting film.
214
Lighting
 Try to become more confident and
proficient lighting by eye, rather than
constantly looking through the finder
and walking around the set with a spot
meter glued to your face.
215
Lighting
 "It's important to observe how the
lighting director thinks and
communicates with others on the
creative team to amplify story telling by
adding and subtracting light, textures
and colours."
216
Lighting
 The luminance levels of colours record
differently on film than they look to the
human eye, even a subtle difference in
the shade of a wall behind a character
can affect skin tones.
217
Lighting
with Steadicams
 Lighting can be tricky shooting with
constantly moving Steadicams.
 Soft light overall then keep the angle
low and use handheld lights traveling
with the cameras for subtle fill light on
close-ups.
218
Foot Candle
Definition
 A "FOOT CANDLE" is a standard unit,
established as reference, that is used
when measuring quantity of light. As
lighting professionals we need to know
"how much" light we are working with.
Like an inch on a ruler, a reference unit
to measure physical objects, the foot
candle is a reference unit for a nonphysical element, light.
219
Foot Candle
Definition
 One Foot Candle equals the total
intensity of light that falls upon a one
square foot surface that is placed 1 foot
away from a point source of light that
equals 1 candle power.
 Note: The term candela also refers to
candle power, 1 candela = 1 candle
power.
220
Foot Candle
Definition
 This illustrates the one
square foot surface area,
of illumination, that is
created by a light source
that equals 1 candle
power at a 1 foot distance.
The total illumination that
falls on this one square
foot surface equals one
foot candle.
221
Foot Candle
Definition
 The one square foot
surface area is exactly
one foot in distance from
the light source. The
surface area is actually
semi-spherical to keep
all sections one foot in
distance from the light
source.
222
Foot Candle
Definition
 A light meter is used to measure the
foot candle level of a scene.
 A light meter incorporates a photosensitive cell that creates an electrical
current when light falls upon it.
 The current increases as the level of
light falling on it is increased.
223
Foot Candle
Definition
 The meter will display the foot candle
level in either a digital form or as a
needle moving along an incremental
scale. The meter uses the electrical
current level as a reference to the level
of footcandles that is falling onto the
photo-sensitive cell. The higher the
current the higher the footcandle
reading.
224
Foot Candle
Definition
 The metric reference for light level is
known as Lux. One lux equals the total
intensity of light that falls on a one
square metre surface that is placed 1
metre away from a point source of light
that equals 1 candle power.
225
Visible Spectrum
Spectral Distribution
 The visible spectrum is a small portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum. The entire
spectrum includes electromagnetic waves
such as gamma rays, x-rays, ultraviolet,
infrared, microwaves, radio and television
waves. Light waves vary in length and are
measured in nanometres (nm) equal to one
billionth of a metre. The wavelength
determines the colour of visible light
produced.
226
Visible Spectrum
Spectral Distribution
 Short wavelengths are located in the
violet portion of the spectrum, following
the shorter ultraviolet waves. As the
waves lengthen, they produce the
remainder of the visible spectrum. The
longest visible waves reside in the red
portion of the spectrum prior to the
invisible infrared waves.
227
Visible Spectrum
Spectral Distribution
 Light sources use varying amounts of
the visible spectrum to produce "white
light". A tungsten incandescent studio
lamp has very little of the violet waves,
while large portions of the yellow to red
wavelengths are used. An incandescent
source produces high levels of infrared
waves. They create more heat than
light.
228
Visible Spectrum
Spectral Distribution
 Arc sources, such as fluorescents and HMI,
use specific portions of the spectrum. The
spectral distribution of an arc shows the
spikes of waves that are incorporated in this
type of light source. Arcs sources, HMI &
Xenon, have ultraviolet waves within their
spectrum. Protection from these UV waves is
necessary when using these sources.
Manufacturers include a trip switch in lighting
units that use these type of arc sources.
Opening the lens, which blocks the UV, will
trip the switch and shut off power to the bulb. 229
Visible Spectrum
Spectral Distribution
230
Colour Mixing
 "White light" is actually the combination
of all colours from the visible spectrum.
A prism illustrates this when it separates
white light into the individual spectral
colours.
231
Colour Mixing
Additive Mixing of Colours
 The mixing of separate coloured light
sources will create a new colour. When
two or more light sources, of varying
colours, are overlapped they "add" their
specific light waves to combine with the
other light source light waves.
232
Colour Mixing
Additive Mixing of Colours
 As the following example illustrates, a
blue light's output added with a red
light's output creates a magenta light.
The primary colours of light are red,
blue and green. Theoretically, if three
light sources using primary red, green
and blue gels are overlapped on a white
surface, the intersection of all three
beams will produce white light.
233
Colour Mixing
Additive Mixing of Colours
234
Colour Mixing
Subtractive Mixing of Colours
 Coloured gel subtracts light waves,
produced by the light source, and only
allows a specific range of waves to pass
through it. A primary red gel will stop
light waves that are not within the red
range of the spectrum, while allowing
red waves to pass through it.
235
Colour Mixing
Subtractive Mixing of Colours
 Gel manufacturers indicate, in their gel
swatch books, the range of light waves that
will pass through the specific colour of gel. A
diagram, showing the spectral curve a "white"
light will produce after passing through the
gel, accompanies each sample gel. Tungsten
light at 3200 degrees Kelvin is used as the
reference "white" light that will be passing
through the gel. Most objects, that are not
light sources, use the subtractive process to
appear their specific colour.
236
Colour Mixing
 A blue ball receiving
all the light waves
from a "white" light
source. The ball
reflects only the blue
range of light waves,
while absorbing the
other light waves in
the spectrum.
237
Colour Mixing
 This is important to remember when
selecting the colour of light you choose
to light an object. A red light does not
supply the blue waves a blue ball needs
to reflect, in order to appear blue.
 A blue ball with only a red light source
will appear black.
238
Creating Depth in a
2-Dimensional Surface
 The television picture tube is a two
dimensional surface that attempts to
recreate the three dimensional world
around us.
 The dimensions of height and width are
physical components of the picture
tube. The third dimension, depth, must
be created within the picture.
239
Creating Depth in a
2-Dimensional Surface
 Lighting plays a major role in creating
the illusion of this third dimension. The
size, perspective and clarity of an object
also play a role in creating a third
dimension, but for now we will
concentrate on the role of lighting.
240
Creating Depth in a
2-Dimensional Surface
 The following examples show how a two
dimensional circle can be transformed
into a three dimensional ball using some
basic lighting principles.
241
Creating Depth in a
2-Dimensional Surface
 Figure 1: Illustrates a ball in a two
dimensional world; the ball has height and
width only.
The red of the ball can be referred to as the
base tonal value of the object.
This "flat" ball represents a three dimensional
surface being lit directly from the camera lens
angle. This style of lighting creates a flat
appearance of an object.
242
Creating Depth in a
2-Dimensional Surface
 Figure 2 : We perceive dark portions of an
object as being further away from us, while
lighter portions appear closer.
Shading one side of the ball, by placing the
main light high and to the right of the camera
lens, creates a dark shadow area that is
perceived to be further away than the lighter
area of the ball.
243
Creating Depth in a
2-Dimensional Surface
 Figure 2 : The shadow's transition (the
edge between the base tonal value of
the object and the darkness of the
shadow) will vary with the type of main
light source used.
244
Creating Depth in a
2-Dimensional Surface
 Figure 2 : A softlight will create a wide
shadow edge with a gradation between the
base tonal value and the darkest portion of
the shadow.
 A hard light will create a defined shadow
edge with very little gradation between the
base tonal value and the darkness of the
shadow.
245
Creating Depth in a
2-Dimensional Surface
 Figure 2 : A Lighting Director's choice
between a hard or softlight source, as
the main light source, will influence the
degree of gradation between base tonal
value and the darkness of the shadow.
246
Creating Depth in a
2-Dimensional Surface
 Figure 3 : An objects highlight (the
reflection of the originating light source
within the object) gives an indication to
the surface texture of that object.
247
Creating Depth in a
2-Dimensional Surface
 Figure 3 : Like the shadow edge, the
highlight's edge will have a transition from the
object's base tonal value to the brightest
portion of the highlight. The highlight's
transition edge will be wide when the object's
surface has a matte or rough finish. When the
surface has a polished smooth finish, the
highlight edge can be sharp with little or no
transition between tonal value and the bright
portion of the highlight.
248
Creating Depth in a
2-Dimensional Surface
 Figure 3 : The polished smooth surface acts
like a mirror reflecting the exact shape of the
originating light source. In this example, if the
ball's surface were polished smooth and the
main light source was a window, the highlight
would show a reflection of the exact square
shape of the window.
249
Creating Depth in a
2-Dimensional Surface
 Figure 4 : The object itself must cast a
shadow to show its spatial relationship to the
world around it.
The ball's shadow in this example gives the
impression it is sitting on a surface. The lack
of an object shadow, as in figure three, gives
the impression the ball is floating in space
without any relationship to its surroundings.
250
Creating Depth in a
2-Dimensional Surface
 Figure 4 : The object's shadow edge will also
have a transition between the darkest portion
of the shadow and the lighter portion of the
surface it is cast upon. Again the width of this
shadow edge transition will be determined by
the type of main light source, hard or soft
light, and the distance the main source is
from the object.
251
Creating Depth in a
2-Dimensional Surface
 Figure 4 : A softlight source creates a wide
shadow edge transition while a hard light
creates a narrow shadow edge transition. A
light placed close to the object creates a
wider shadow transition than a light placed
further away from the object.
252
Creating Depth in a
2-Dimensional Surface
 Figure 4 : The length of the object's shadow
will relate to the placement of the main light
source.
 In this example, had the main light source
been placed to the bottom right of the ball,
the shadow would have been longer.
The highlight will also reposition itself within
the object when the main light source is
moved.
253
Creating Depth in a
2-Dimensional Surface
 How a two dimensional circle can be
transformed into a three dimensional
ball using some basic lighting principles.
254
Angles of Light
Positioning the Light
 One of the most critical decisions a
Lighting Director makes is the position
of the light source. An object's form will
be defined differently depending on the
shading and highlights created by the
light source. What is not lit is as
important as what is lit.
255
Angles of Light
Positioning the Light
 The following animation shows the affect of a
single hard light source placed at various
positions. We can relate the position of the
light source to the hour positions on a clock
face. As the light source moves around the
clock the form of the person in the centre of
the clock will change, from a dramatic figure
in the ten and two o'clock position, to a flatly
lit full figure in the six o'clock position.
256
Angles of Light
Positioning the Light
 This example applies to the height of the light
source from the floor also. A source placed
low to the ground in a ten o'clock position will
have a different look to a source placed high
in the ten o'clock position.
257
Angles of Light
Position Terms
 Terms vary depending upon the
Country; stage or studio; single camera
or multi-camera lighting.
258
Angles of Light
Position Terms - Backlight
 A light source placed in the ten, twelve or two
o'clock position in this example would be
considered a backlight. The backlight
highlights the shoulders and the hair of the
person. It is used to separate the subject from
the background. A single source backlight is
usually placed in the twelve o'clock position.
Two sources can be used for backlights but
they would not be positioned beyond the
three and nine o'clock position, as the light
would fall upon the subject's face.
259
Angles of Light
Position Terms - Kicker
 This term is often used in a single camera
shoot when a single source is placed in the
nine, ten, twelve, two or three o'clock
position. In the nine and three o'clock position
the kicker would be a side kicker because it
would be intended to fall upon the face.
Unlike a backlight a kicker can fall upon the
face depending upon the look the lighting
director intends.
260
Angles of Light
Position Terms - Keylight
 A light placed in the four, six or eight
o'clock position would be a keylight. The
keylight defines a subject's form by
creating the main shadows and
highlights. The keylight position is often
placed to one side of the camera, eight
or four o'clock position, to create depth.
261
Softlights
 A softlight creates a shadow that has a
less defined edge, compared with a
hard light's defined shadow edge.
 A hardlight's shadow edge mimics the
image that is casting the shadow
(dependent on the light source, object,
shadow distances).
262
Softlights
 The hard light acts like a single point
source of light. However, the softlight
acts like a multitude of point sources
with each point source cancelling out
each other's defined shadow.
263
Softlights
 The size of the softlight has a major
influence on how defined the shadow's
edge will be. The larger source allows
the multitude of point sources to wrap
around an object and cancel out the
effects of the point sources that are
creating the shadow.
264
Softlights
 If you wish to create a less defined shadow,
the physical size of a softlight is one aspect to
consider. The physical distance the softlight is
placed, to the object that will be casting the
shadow (as the following examples illustrate),
affects the shadow edge. When you move a
soft source closer to an object, you actually
increase the size of the softlight in
relationship to the object.
265
Softlights
When you move a soft source closer to an object, you
actually increase the size of the softlight in relationship to
the object.
Close Distance
Medium Distance
Far Distance
266
Softlights
 A hard source can be made into a soft
source by either "bouncing" (pointing
the light towards a surface) against a
white card, or by placing a piece of
diffusion gel in front of the hardlight.
This actually transforms this single point
source into a multitude of point sources.
267
Softlights
 When placing a diffusion gel on the
barndoors of a hardlight, the gel itself
now becomes the light source. This
means that the barndoors are now just
a gel holder. Unwanted light (emanating
from the gel) must be blocked with flags
or blackwrap
268
Softlights
 The edge of a shadow is noticeable on
a face. A nose shadow falling on a
cheek, for example, will be less defined
if we use a large soft source. The
choice between a hard light source and
a soft light source will be determined, by
the Lighting Director, depending on the
mood or textures he/she is try to
achieve.
269
Lighting Levels
The Camera
 2/3" CCD camera sensitivity, using
Hyper HAD CCDs ('f8' camera)
 At f4.0 requires 750 lux
 At f2.8 requires 375 lux
 At f2.0 requires 187.5 lux
270
Lighting Levels
The Camera
 For talking head programmes, using
prompting devices, aim for 500-600 lux.
 For that Light Entertainment feel, aim
for about 800 lux and use 0.3ND filter in
the camera filter wheel or minus gain to
get good optical separation.
271
Lighting Levels
The Luminaires
 Beam angle is the angle between half
intensity points. Reduce by 10° to get
useful coverage angle.
 Illuminance (lux or lumens/m2) =
Candlepower (candelas)/Distance2
(metres)
272
Lighting Levels
Notes
 To take into account ageing, dirt, etc. reduce
manufacturers quoted candlepower by 15% 20%
 For large angles of incidence multiply by
Cosine of this angle e.g. for 30° reduce by
14% (cos 30° = 0.86)
 When tele prompter fitted to camera,
sensitivity is reduced by about ½ stop (70%
transmission)
273
Lighting Levels
Notes
 x2 range extender loses 2 stops of
sensitivity (x 0.25)
 Be aware of zoom ramping with long
focal length lenses and open apertures
i.e. f 2.0
 Minus blue filter (filter 3) reduces
sensitivity by almost 1 stop
274
Lighting Levels
Notes
 +3dB is equivalent to + ½ stop (x 1.4)
+6dB is equivalent to + 1 stop (x 2)
+9dB is equivalent to + 1½ stop (x 2.8)
-3dB is equivalent to - 1½ stop (x 0.7)
-6dB is equivalent to - 1 stop (x 0.5)
-9dB is equivalent to - 1½ stop (x 0.35)
 ASA rating = (1250 x f no.2 /illuminance (foot
candles)) * (1/50 sec exposure time)
275
Lighting Level
 At the planning stage an estimate of the
required lighting level should be made.
Clearly, if working out of doors this will
be difficult to predict with any accuracy
but “time-of-day/time-of-year” should
help to some extent.
276
Lighting Level
 One should consider: Basic camera sensitivity at required aperture.
 Tungsten/Daylight considerations.
 Zoom ramping.
 Use of range extenders.
 Use of prompt devices.
 Existing lighting conditions.
277
Lighting Level
 Often, depending on a programme
content/location, the lighting will need to
“modify” the natural lighting to make it
more acceptable for recording. So one
should be prepared for a wide range of
lighting possibilities.
278
Lighting On Location
 Lighting on location involves a similar
process to the studios, namely planning,
rigging/setting of luminaires and final
balance of their relative intensities.
279
Lighting On Location
 The major difference is that whereas in
a studio, one is working in a “controlled”
environment, on location there is usually
very little control of the weather - it is
difficult to predict and impossible to
control. So, when working on location
one has to be prepared for a wide range
of possible conditions.
280
Lighting On Location
Reconnaissance
 There should be some form of
reconnaissance (recce) of the location
prior to the day of the actual shoot. This
is to ensure that there is time to solve
the problems which the site may pose
or to decide that the location is totally
impossible to light or shoot or cover for
sound and therefore another site must
be found.
281
Lighting On Location
Reconnaissance
 At this early planning stage, it is
important that the Director supplies as
much information as possible about the
location and the action to be recorded.
282
Lighting On Location
Reconnaissance
 Artiste(s) position(s) and moves.
 Camera(s) position and moves.
 Shot sizes - dictating the area to be lit.
 Multi-camera or single camera shooting.
 Matching of shots to studio or other
locations.
 Method of sound pick up and probable
position of microphone.
283
Lighting On Location
Reconnaissance
 Time of day for the shoot - where will
the sun be?
 Overall theme of action, e.g. Drama,
Documentary, Variety.
 Time scale of shoot.
 Budget available for lighting.
284
Lighting On Location
Reconnaissance
 The problems to be found on location
are very different to those of the studio,
but of course one is still striving for
pictures which are technically and
artistically pleasing. The points to
consider at the recce/planning stage
are:
285
Lighting On Location
Reconnaissance
 Influence of natural lighting.
 Colour temperature.
 Lighting level.
 Excessive contrast.
 Power availability on site.
 Cabling.
 Luminaires.
 Means of fixing luminaires.
286
Lighting On Location
Reconnaissance
 Dimmers I control system.
 Number of Electricians.
 Times scale.
 Picture monitor.
 Budget.
 Communication.
 Access to the site/building.
 Safety.
287
Influence of Natural
Lighting
 What will be the possible range of lighting
conditions existing at the time of the shoot?
 Will it be day, night, early morning or late
evening?
 Where will the sun be during the period of the
production?
 Consider all these points and decide how
best you can use the natural lighting to best
advantage, i.e. as main source light, filler or
back-light.
288
Influence of Natural
Lighting
 Then establish what lighting is required
to supplement the natural lighting to
make the pictures acceptable.
 Remember though, that “daylight” can
change rapidly and is difficult to predict,
so be prepared to meet a wide range of
lighting conditions, i.e. bright sun
through to dull overcast.
289
Influence of Natural
Lighting
 Continuity of lighting conditions may
also require one to create a “bright sun”
on an overcast day. Clearly this is
impossible on landscape shots, but on
limited area exteriors and interiors, this
is possible if the right light sources are
available.
290
Influence of Natural
Lighting
 In some instances of interior shooting,
the influence of daylight may be minimal
such that one can ignore it completely,
i.e. very little daylight entering the room
and windows not in shot.
291
Colour Temperature
 The first consideration is usually that of colour
temperature. Unless one is trying to obtain a
particular effect, it is important to operate with
light sources which are all approximately of
the same colour temperature. So, when
deciding to operate in a Daylight
environment, ideally all sources should
produce Daylight or be colour temperature
corrected to look like Daylight. Similarly, if one
decides to operate in a Tungsten mode, all
sources should be Tungsten or corrected to
Tungsten.
292
Colour Temperature
 It is worth noting that the above two
options are not the only ones. For
example if one has a mixture of light
sources, it may be more efficient to
correct them to some mean value,
thereby reducing the losses introduced
by full correction.
293
Colour Temperature
 Or, it may be acceptable that any
exterior Daylight appears slightly blue
thus interior tungsten lights could be
corrected to ½ CTB (and white balance
to ½ CTB), this would reduce the loss
which would have been introduced by
using a full CTB filter.
294
Colour Temperature
 Or, on the other band, it may be
acceptable or even desirable that
tungsten practicals should look warm
(and not white). In which case all
“daylight” needs to be corrected with
½ CTO filters.
295
Colour Temperature
 Where one has visible exterior daylight
and “practical” tungsten sources, it may
be acceptable to also operate In a
halfway condition. In which case, all
tungsten sources (excluding practicals)
should be corrected to ½ CTB and all
daylight sources corrected to ½ CTO
(excluding windows).
296
Colour Temperature
 All “in-shot” practicals (tungsten) will
then appear “warm” and, “in-shot”
windows will appear “cold”, i.e. slightly
blue, provided of course that the
camera has been white-balanced to a
white point half-way between tungsten
and daylight.
297
Lighting Level
 At the planning stage an estimate of the
required lighting level should be made.
Clearly, if working out of doors this will be
difficult to predict with any accuracy but “timeof-day/time-of-year” should help to some
extent. A discussion of factors affecting
lighting levels is covered on a separate, more
detailed note -however, to summarise one
should consider:
298
Lighting Level
 Basic camera sensitivity at required
aperture.
 Tungsten/Daylight considerations.
 Zoom ramping.
 Use of range extenders.
 Use of prompt devices.
 Existing lighting conditions.
299
Lighting Level
 Often, depending on a programme
content/location, the lighting will need to
“modify” the natural lighting to make it
more acceptable for recording. So one
should be prepared for a wide range of
lighting possibilities.
300
Excessive Contrast
 This often occurs on exterior work, the most
common example is that of the face lit by the
sun. In brilliant sunlight and no clouds, the
contrast between the sunlit part of the face
and the shadows will be excessive, i.e. 3 - 4
stops difference giving a contrast of at least
8:1. To enable detail to be seen in the shadow
areas one must add light either by using a
reflector board to “bounce” the sun or by
using an appropriate light source.
301
Excessive Contrast
 Always remember that the light levels from
the sun can be extremely high. In studios the
scene illumination is typically of the order of
1000 lux. On a bright sunlit day the scene
illumination can be as high at 100,000 lux - a
factor of x 100 studio levels. Consequently,
one must choose the appropriate light source
very carefully. A light source used for studio
work at 5 metres, will have little effect at 5
metres out-of-doors on a sunlit day!
302
Excessive Contrast
 Video cameras can handle a scene contrast
of approximately 40:1, film cameras
approximately three times this value. The
average exterior contrast is approximately
150:1 but it can be as high as 1000:1.
Obviously care must be exercised in shooting
to ensure that this excessive contrast does
not spoil the picture. Close-ups of faces
against bright skies can pose particularly
severe problems.
303
Excessive Contrast
 This excessive contrast becomes even more
of a problem when one moves inside and
shoots against windows. The contrast
between interior and exterior can be high this is more of a problem with video cameras
than film cameras because of the limited
contrast handling ability and the “spreading”
of high lights. It is usually impractical to light
an interior to the same illumination as the
exterior so Neutral Density filters need to be
fitted to the windows.
304
Excessive Contrast
 These are available either as flexible gelatine





filters or as 4 mm acrylic sheets. The range
available is
3ND (1 stop)
6ND (2 stops)
9ND (3 stops)
1.2ND (4 stops)
Also available are combined ND filters and
Colour Temperature Correction filters.
305
Excessive Contrast
 The ND filters should not be visible on
camera - ideally, they should be stapled onto
temporary wooden frames and fastened to
the outside of the windows with simple
wedges. Care should be taken to ensure that
the location property is not damaged (if the
filters are stapled directly into the window
frames, all staples must be removed after the
shoot and the damages holes repaired).
306
Lighting Contrast Ratios
 When using artificial light sources to
illuminate a subject, a ratio between the
relative intensity of the key light and the fill
lights can be determined. First, the intensity
of light is measured at the subject under both
the key and fill lighting. Then the intensity of
the fill light alone is measured. The ratio of
the intensities of the combined key light and
fill lights to the fill light alone, measured at the
subject, is known as the lighting ratio.
307
Lighting Contrast Ratios
 Portrait lighting ratios for colour
photography are typically around 3:1 or
4:1. For instance, let's suppose that you
were using a film stock rated at EI 400
and you've lit your subject with typical
key-plus-fill to fill lighting.
308
Lighting Contrast Ratios
 If the combined key light plus fill light
produce an incident meter reading of
T5.6 (100 footcandles) and a reading of
the fill light alone measures T2.8 (25
footcandles), the ratio would be 4:1 or a
two stop difference from the highlights
to the shadows.
309
Illumination
(Incident Light) for Camera Films
 Illumination (incident Light) Table When the
illumination is very low or where reflectedlight measurements cannot be made
conveniently, you can use an incident-light
meter to read the illumination directly in
footcandles (lux). The following illumination
Table gives the correct aperture setting for a
given exposure index and a given footcandle
(lux) reading.
310
Illumination
(Incident Light) for Camera Films
 The values are intended for use with
tungsten light or with daylight,
depending on the balance of the film.
The values given refer to
measurements with a meter held at the
subject position and the integrating
sphere pointed directly toward the
camera.
311
Illumination
(Incident Light) for Camera Films
 The values assume exposure by the
recommended illuminant (daylight or
tungsten) without filtration. In the
following summary of illumination tables
from the datasheets, the films are listed
in decreasing order of exposure index
(EI).
312
Illumination (Incident Light)
for Camera Films Using
Recommended Illuminant
Exposure Time 1/50 second
(24 fps)
 Values in the following table are given in
footcandles.
313
Exposure
Index
fl 1.4
fl 2
fl 2.8
fl 4
fl 5.6
fl 8
fl 11
fl 16
500
5
10
20
40
80
160
320
640
400
6.3
12.5
25
50
100
200
400
800
320
8
16
32
63
125
250
500
1000
250
10
20
40
80
160
320
640
1280
200
13
25
50
100
200
400
800
1600
160
16
32
63
125
250
500
1000
2000
125
20
40
80
160
320
640
1280
2560
100
25
50
100
200
400
800
1600
3200
64
40
80
160
320
640
1280
2560
5120
40
63
125
250
500
1000
2000
4000
8000
25
100
200
400
800
1600
3200
6400
12800
314
Lighting Contrast Ratios
 When using artificial light sources to
illuminate a subject, you can determine a
ratio between the relative intensity of the key
light and the fill lights. First, measure the
intensity of light at the subject under both the
key and fill lighting. Then measure the
intensity of the fill light alone. The ratio of the
intensities of the combined key light and fill
lights to the fill light alone, measured at the
subjects, is known as the lighting ratio.
315
Lighting Contrast Ratios
 Except for dramatic or special effects,
the generally accepted ratio for colour
photography is 2 to I or 3 to 1. If
duplicate prints of the camera film are
needed, the ratio should seldom exceed
3 to 1.
316
Lighting Contrast Ratios
 For example, if the combined main light and
fill light on a scene produce a meter reading
of 6000 footcandles at the highlight areas and
1000 footcandles in the shadow areas, the
ratio is 6 to 1. The shadow areas should be
illuminated to give a reading of at least 2000
and preferably 3000 footcandles to bring the
lighting ratio within the permissible range.
317
Lighting Contrast Ratios
Lighting contrast
ratio 2:1
Lighting contrast
ratio 5:1
318
FRESNEL
(From 1954)
 This spotlight uses-a “Fresnel” lens,
named after its french physicist inventor
(Augustin Fresnel 1788-1827). The
Fresnel is a convex lens thinner than a
normal lens with the same focal lengthachieved by making the surface a series
of stepped concentric rings, each with
the same curvature as the equivalent
normal convex surface at that radius.
319
FRESNEL
 This trick diffuses the light-beam (to soften
the beam and to prevent the lamp-image
being projected) AND (because of its
thinness) avoids the light-absorption that the
Focus-Spots’ lenses suffered from. The
Fresnel lens is also employed in lighthouses.
In that guise it consists of an enormous series
of separate rings and is so heavy, that it is
commonly supported in a bath of mercury.
320
WHAT’S A FRESNEL?
 A point light source, such as a lamp throws
out light in all directions. By placing a pianoconvex lens in front of the source, the rays
can be controlled and directed to where we
want them. The main problem is that the lens
has to be large in order to capture as much of
the light as possible.
321
WHAT’S A FRESNEL?
 At some point it was noticed that there’s a
large volume of glass in the centre of this lens
which isn’t actually doing anything. So, if you
were to slice up the simple lens and remove
this glass...
322
WHAT’S A FRESNEL?
 .and paste the remaining bits back together,
you’d get a much lighter lens which still
focussed the light, yet was thin enough to
disperse the heat and at the same time
weighed a lot less. The result is a pleasantly
soft yet adjustable beam of light.
323
FRESNEL
 The first British Fresnel lantern was Strand’s
500 watt Pattern 123, which was produced
from about 1954. It was followed by the 1Kw
223 and the 2Kw 243. The advent of this
lantern revolutionised the look of the stage.
Light could now be accurately focussed into
specific areas, and beams from different
spots merged into one-another to produce a
general cover”.
324
STUDIO 2 kW
Quartz Halogen Fresnel
Distance (m)
3
Lux
SPOT (11°)
FLOOD (57.8°)
5
f [m]
Lux
10
f [m]
35,110
0.6
12,640
0.9
5,110
3.3
1,840
5.5
Strand Lighting
Lux
3,160
460
15
f [m]
Lux
f [m]
1.9
1,400
2.9
11
200
16.5
325
ARTURO Softlights
1250W
Distance (m)
3
Lux
1200
4
f [m]
3.6
Strand Lighting
Lux
675
5
f [m]
4.8
Lux
432
6
f [m]
Lux
f [m]
6.0
300
7.21
326
ARTURO Softlights
2500W
Distance (m)
4
Lux
1562
5
6
f [m]
Lux
f [m]
Lux
5.0
1000
6.24
696
Strand Lighting
7
f [m]
Lux
f [m]
7.5
510
8.75
327
Redhead 800W
Distance (m)
3
Lux
4
f [m]
Lux
SPOT (27.5°)
2970
2.6
1670
FLOOD (87°)
910
5.7
515
Strand Lighting
5
f [m]
3.5
7.6
Lux
1070
330
6
f [m]
Lux
f [m]
4.4
740
5.2
230
11.4
9.5
328
Blonde 2000W
Distance (m)
3
Lux
4
f [m]
Lux
5
f [m]
Lux
SPOT (27°)
6675
1.7
2970
2.6
1670
FLOOD (72°)
2095
3.8
910
5.7
515
Strand Lighting
6
f [m]
3.5
7.6
Lux
f [m]
1070
4.4
330
9.5
329
Different
Types of Lighting
330
Video PRO Banks
 For controlled soft lighting on small sets,
or for use as a separation light or small
fill. These standard-depth banks are
extremely light weight and are primarily
used with single broad-beamed, openfaced instruments.
331
Daylite Junior
PLUS Bank
 Intended for use with smaller, narrow-
beam instruments, such as 1,000 watt
Fresnels and Mickey Moles.
 As much as 50% deeper than Video
PRO Banks, Junior Banks produce a
superb light quality while yielding the
maximum output from your narrowbeam instruments.
332
Chimera Lantern
 This high-tech version of the traditional
Chinese lantern serves well as a central
soft light for round-table interviews and
for filling interior shooting spaces with
soft, ambient light.
333
AURASOFT
 Aurasoft reflector consists of thousands of
tiny spheroidal convex mirrors, each
reflecting angled light across the path of the
adjoining mirror.
 The thousands at individual light beams crisscross one another and reduce the directness
of the light, creating an effect of quite
surprising natural softness. To enhance this
softness and to minimise interference from
moiré patterns, the thousands of individual
mirrors have been employed in a range of
334
different diameters.
AURASOFT
 The result gives a soft natural light, with
virtually the same soft shadows that are
associated with a natural skylight.
 The unique reflector design produces
an even spread of light across an
exceptionally wide area.
335
Aurasoft 600
 1kW/2kW/3kW Tungsten Halogen
Light Output @ 5m:
1kW, 180 lux; 2kW, 360 lux; 3kW,
550 lux (open face)
Illumination Angle
(0.5% intensity):70º (open face)
(0.1% intensity):116º (open face)
336
Aurasoft 800
 2kW/4kW Tungsten Halogen
Light Output @ 5m:
2kW, 280 lux; 4kW, 510 lux (open face)
Illumination Angle
(0.5% intensity):70º (open face)
(0.1% intensity):130º (2kW open face);
337
Inverse square law
The cosine law
 Two important laws should not be
overlooked here when deciding on the
luminaire to use, namely - the inverse
square law and the cosine law.
338
Inverse square law
The cosine law
 Luminaire manufacturers publish data
on the performance of their product.
Remember that this data will be for a
new luminaire/new lamp (bulb)
combination connected directly to the
mains. So, take account of possible
ageing of luminaire/lamp, actual lamp
throw” (not the horizontal distance) and
the Cosine law.
339
Inverse square law
The cosine law
 In this example, the light source makes an
angle of incidence of 45° on the subject.
The actual lamp throw will be:
( / 2 x d ) [ d = Horizontal Distance ]
45°
d
340
Inverse square law
The cosine law
 If the candle-power of the light source is
I Candelas the illumination on the
subject will be:
341
Inverse square law
The cosine law
 Subject illumination (E)
=
=
=
I
x
( / 2 x d)²
I
x
2 x d²
I
x
d²
Cos 45 lux
O.7 lux
O.35 lux
342
Inverse square law
The cosine law
 If one had ignored the Cosine factor and
the true throw, the calculated
illumination would be:
E
=
I
d²
lux
343
Inverse square law
The cosine law
 So the true illumination would be only
35% of the value calculated ignoring the
true throw and Cosine law - an error of
65% !
 With a 30º keying angle, the error
involved would be approximately 37%,
clearly these are factors which must not
be ignored !
344
Direct And
Alternating Current
 Electric supplies are of two types: direct and
alternating. In the former the current flows
always in the one direction, from the positive
pole to the negative. Alternating current, on
the other hand, reverses its polarity many
times a second. The standard frequency in
England is 50 cycles, which means to say
that each wire of the circuit becomes
successively positive and negative 50 times
every second.
345
Direct And
Alternating Current
 Large A.C. installations are generally wired
on a three-phase supply. Here we have three
wires, coloured generally red, white and
green, the current in each of which reverses
in polarity at different instants; in addition,
there may be a fourth or neutral wire,
generally black. The standard voltage in this
country is 230 V single-phase or 415 V 3 phase, either, as mentioned, 50 cycles.
346
Electric Units
 Let us draw a domestic analogy from
the gas supply. When cooking the
dinner we have low pressure.
 In order to get the dinner ready on time,
to compensate for this low pressure we
turn the taps higher and burn more
cubic feet of gas.
347
Electric Units
 These terms of the gas engineer have
their corresponding quantities in
electricity. The unit of pressure is the
volt, and the unit of current flow the
ampere. The equivalent of the various
factors which restrict the flow of gas the length of pipes, and notably the gas
- tap - is resistance, measured in ohms.
348
Ohm’s Law
volts
= amps
ohms
or
volts
= ohms
amps
349
Ohm’s Law
or equally
amps x ohms = volts
350
Ohm’s Law
 Power obviously depends upon both the
pressure and the amount of current.
Consequently the unit of power, the
watt, is equal to the product of pressure
and current:
351
Ohm’s Law
watts = volts x amps
or alternatively –
watts
amps =
volts
352
Capacity of Installation
 The load-carrying capacity of any circuit
or sub-circuit is always reckoned in
amperes. On switches, fuses, and the
company’s meters one will generally
find marked the permissible rating. How
is one to ascertain how many lamps of
given wattage can be safely run on a
circuit rated at so many amperes?
353
Capacity of Installation
 Supposing it is desired to run, say, three
800 - watt lamps on a 240 - Volt supply ?
354
Capacity of Installation
 We first ascertain the total wattage,
which equals 2400, and, dividing by
240, we get the answer 10 amperes.
2400
= 10 amps
240
355
Power Availability
on Site
 This is an obvious planning requirement
- to investigate the mains power
available on site and how much can be
used for the Outside Broadcast/Location
work. If there is insufficient power
available then one would need to
supplement it with a mobile generator or
simply use a generator by itself.
356
Power Availability
on Site
 When considering mains power, one
should also try to evaluate how “good”
the mains feed is. For example, In
remote areas it is quite common for the
mains to be more than 15% down on
nominal voltage when supplying a large
load. This will result in a significant drop
in light output of the luminaires.
357
Power Availability
on Site
 Allied to availability of a good mains
supply, will be accessibility of the main
bus-bars to make the appropriate
connections to the location lighting
equipment.
358
Power Availability
on Site
 The current demand by discharge
sources should be noted in calculating
total “demand”. HMI sources do not
follow the normal power equation: P = IV Watts
359
Power Availability
on Site
 Typically, a 2½ Kw HMI draws 14.5
Amps and not 10.4 Amps as one might
expect for a 2½ Kw load.
 The starting current for HMI sources
should also be noted - again a normal
2½ Kw HMI source takes 32 Amps on
starting.
360
Power Availability
on Site
 Flicker-free HMI sources take more
current than the normal HMI, e. g. a
“flickerfree” 2½ Kw HMI running current
is 19.6 Amps.
 Allow a good “headroom” on supplies of
unknown reliability, otherwise, if working
near to the limit of the supply an
embarrassing power failure may result.
361
Power Availability
on Site
 Careful planning of load requirements is
essential to ensure that the mains
supply / generator is capable of coping
reliably.
362
Cabling
 Cable routes for mains cables (also
camera & sound cables) should be
planned to ensure:
 Shortest possible route consistent with
no cables “in-shot”.
 Minimum disturbance to the general
public.
363
Cabling
 Minimum disturbance to access, i.e.
paths/roads.
 Security of the location is not
jeopardized, i.e. windows can be closed
at night.
 Avoid mains cables and sound cables
running parallel.
364
Luiminaires
 The choice of luminaire will depend on:
 Daylight/Tungsten.
 Scene illumination required.
 Lamp throw required.
 Area to be lit.
 Control of the beam shape required.
365
Luiminaires
 Luminaires available.
 Power available.
 Suspension system / luminaire weight.
 Time scale.
 Budget
366
Means of Fixing
Luminaires
 This is the area which often requires a certain




amount of ingenuity to get the luminaire
where you want it. The simplest method
would be on a stand, but the range of other
possibilities include:
Turtle
Low Stand
Medium Stand
Extra High Lift Stand
367
Means of Fixing
Luminaires
 Genie Stand
 Scaffold Tower or Scaffold Bar
 Lightweight Trussing (Trylite)
 Heavy Trussing
 G Clamp & Spigot
 Lite-Beam
 Aerial platform (“cherry-picker” type vehicle)
 Scissor lift
368
Means of Fixing
Luminaires
 “Pole-Cats” (lightweight fittings only)
 Beam Clamp (lightweight fittings only)
 Gaffer Grip (lightweight fittings only-Italian




Clamp)
Lightweight Gaffer Grip (lightweight fittings
only)
Scissors clamp (lightweight fittings only)
Super clamps/magic arms
Dimmers / Control Systems
369
Dimmers / Control
Systems
 When operating with Tungsten, it is
extremely useful to have the facility of
dimmers on all lighting circuits. This
enables swift balancing of lighting levels
and allows for “on-shot” lighting
changes to be made.
370
Dimmers / Control
Systems
 Flicker-free” HMI sources can be dimmed
electrically to about 40% of their maximum
light output. If full dimming is required then
mechanical dimmers have to be fitted to each
luminaire - these can be controlled via a
servo-system or more commonly by an
Electrician. (If using a large number of HMI’s
this could become expensive and
complicated 1 Electrician/luminare plus
talkback facilities to each Electrician)
371
Dimmers / Control
Systems
 If portable dimmers are used they
should be sited well away from the
“action area" to avoid interference with
sound pick-up. (Some units buzz when
dimmed).
372
Number of Electricians
 This will depend on the size of the
job,i.e.
 Number of luminaires to be rigged and
their weights.
 Cable runs.
 Site difficulties - high mounting positions
for luminaires.
 Generators being used.
373
Number of Electricians
 Time scale.
 Budget.
 The last two items are clearly related,
one has to design the lighting treatment
to fit in with the requirements of both
timescale and budget.
374
Timescale
 It is very important to establish a
reasonable timescale for any
production. This is something which win
mainly be based on past experience
and the particular production
requirements. Do not forget timescale
for the de-rig operation!
375
Picture Monitor
 It is extremely useful to have a colour
picture monitor available adjacent to the
camera position. This is especially
helpful when shooting location work to a
short timescale and avoids the need to
be continually running back to the
control vehicle to check picture content.
376
Budget
 This is the factor which will have the
greatest influence on the production - it
will dictate timescale/manpower/
technical resources available for the
programme. It must be known at an
early stage.
377
Communication
 Good communication is vital to the
speed and efficient working of any
team. There should be some form of
radio communication available, in
addition to normal talkback, to enable
the Lighting Director to speak with the
Foreman Electrician, Vision Control and
when used, Follow-Spot Operators.
378
Access
 At the planning stage investigate access
to the location, local contacts. Note any
problems which might affect the rigging
or de-rigging, e.g. religious services at
various times of the day or possible
extra requirements for total quiet.
379
Safety
 An absolute essential. Any location
lighting must be within the local
Electrical Safety Regulations. Particular
hazards to watch out for are:
 Electrical earthing.
 Correct use of isolating transformers.
 All stands, scaffolding correctly erected.
Safety aspects of 3 phase supplies.
380
Safety
 Suspended luminaires - safety bonds
(also safety bonds on non-captive
barndoors).
 Damage to the location site from heat
due to luminaires being too close to
curtains, ceilings, paintings and other
works of art.
381
Safety
 Always ask at the “recce” if there are
any particular features of the location
with which one should be especially
careful.
382
At the “Recce”
 Listen to Director/Producer.
 Collect all the information you require.
 Observe natural lighting of location.
 Measure existing lighting levels.
 Measure existing contrast levels.
 Measure dimensions of the location, as
necessary, e. g. area and height.
383
At the “Recce”
 Observe where lighting units may be
suspended.
 Decide on cable runs.
 Decide on location of dimmers (if used)
and generator (if used).
 Verify mains supply capability.
 Safety aspects should be considered at
all times.
384
Useful Items at the
“Recce”
 Clip-board, notepad, pencil and eraser.
Exposure meter.
 Spotmeter.
 Tape measure, ideally a retractable
steel ruler, to enable easy measurement
of heights and location dimensions.
385
Useful Items at the
“Recce”
 Small digital camera to record features
of the location for future reference.
 Small torch - to help investigate mains
supply connections in dark cupboards!
 Small compass - useful in establishing
position of the sun on overcast recce
days!
386
Pre – Production
 When producing any form of media i.e.
Documentary, Docu soap, Drama, Comedy,
TV commercial - firstly you need an idea!
 Once you have that idea, you need to
translate it into a form that can be made
feasible to view by your ultimate audience.
 It may be that the ‘idea’ already exists from
your client or colleague. If so, the next step is
RESEARCH
387
Pre – Production
 The first step of research is TALK. Talk to the
author or client, the participants, the experts
who have knowledge of the subject matter.
 They should give you enough working
material to develop your perception on how
you will put the message across – and how
you will tell the story.
 If you need further material, statistics,
opinions - find an alternative source. eg.
Libraries/Internet/Newspapers/ Technical
journals.
388
Pre – Production
 At the same time as carrying out research,
give the project an identity (a ‘working title’).
This will not necessarily be the final title on
the captions but will give the programme a
flavour of its content.
 When you feel that enough research is done,
the next step is the -TREATMENT.
 The Treatment is an outline of the
programme’s content and running order. A
portrayal of how you will interpret the subject
matter into a visible and audible form.
389
Pre – Production
 The Treatment should be laid out as an
introduction to the project brief (Preamble)
and lead into a description of the programme
content stating how you will tell the story,
what visuals/audio elements will be included
and the style that will be followed.
 If the client agrees with the Treatment the
next task is a COSTING/BUDGET proposal.
390
Pre – Production
 The COSTING should include every
element of Production : Director / Producer fee
 Scriptwriter fee
 Presenter / voiceover fees
 Camera crew & equipment hire /
tapestock / transport
 Lighting hire / transport
391
Pre – Production
 Hotel Accommodation / Rail (Air) fares?
 Royalties for library footage?
 Studio hire fees
 Post production costs (EDITING)
 Video duplication costs
 Special effects. . .Autocue. . .
 Can you think of any others?
392
Pre – Production
 Once the budget is agreed we move on at
last, to writing the SHOOTING SCRIPT.
 This may incorporate changes several times
during production but the first draft is always
the starting block. . .
 It can be laid out in Two column form with
PICTURE content (left) and
 AUDIO content (right)
393
Pre – Production
Script Layout
(Left) visuals
(Right) audio
1. Description of location/
shot detail / captions
Narration / music / fx
at this point
2. As above
As above
And so on. . .
Remember to number each visual /audio paragraph.
394
Production
Camera Shooting Technique
VOX POPS
Some DO's and DONT's
395
Production
Camera Shooting Technique
 ALWAYS use a tripod where possible (unless
the use of handheld camera is
desired/essential for effect)
 Make sure the tripod is locked down and
LEVEL (use the heads spirit level) Focus at
full zoom and then widen the shot to desired
image size.
 Check exposure using ZEBRA and set to
manual exposure, to avoid the iris hunting up
and down in changing light.
396
Production
Camera Shooting Technique
 When panning or tilting, make the action
smooth and come to a definite ‘stop’ at the
end of the shot.
 Only zoom when necessary/keep camera
steady. i.e. LET THE SUBJECT MOVE
WITHIN THE FRAME! avoid ‘hosepiping’
 When filming people - avoid having their
HEAD too low in the frame. Avoid ‘CRASH’
zooming - especially on documentary work.
397
Production
Camera Shooting Technique
 Check you have selected the correct
colour temp. filter and remember to
White balance!
 Set brightness/contrast in the camera
viewfinder.
398
Production
VOX POPS
From latin
"VOICE OF THE PEOPLE"
399
Production
Some DO's and DONT's VOX POPS
 DO Use a tripod if possible.
 DO decide on your story/questions in
advance before approaching likely members
of public. i.e. RESEARCH!
 DO pick questions that can be answered
briefly (and be answered in a self contained
form of words) This will avoid having to use
the Reporters questions each time when
editing the audio.
400
Production
Some DO's and DONT's VOX POPS
 DO frame the Interviewee 'Head & Shoulders'




at approx. eye level.
DO position the subject so they are not
squinting into camera - eg in harsh sunshine.
-check exposure/zebra pattern.
DO mic the sound closely in busy/noisy areas
to get a clear answer.
DO be ready to 'turnover' tape straight away
(need 5-10 seconds run up if poss).
401
Production
Some DO's and DONT's VOX POPS
 DO keep questions brief and get a mix of
sex/age/background of Interviewee (vary the
type of person/answers you are likely to get a
response from).
 DO get some couples to interview, in a two
shot (vary the background).
 DO use answers that are concise so you can
'grab' quick sound bytes when editing.
402
Production
Some DO's and DONT's VOX POPS
 DON'T forget to get the camera level (use
spirit level on the tripod).
 DON'T forget to white balance for the
prevailing light - with correct filter!
 DON'T forget to record colour bars & line up
tone at start of tape (-4db for 30 secs).
 DON'T get the mic in shot (keep the shot
medium tight).
403
Production
Some DO's and DONT's VOX POPS
 DON'T frame so that you get lamp posts
or traffic signs etc. growing out of
peoples heads/ears.
 DON'T ask more than 2 or 3 questions ideally one or two should do.
 Remember tape is relatively cheap don't be afraid to use it.
 GOOD LUCK!!
404
End
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