Essential grammar
重要基礎文法 01 (2011)
By Peiling Hsia
Contents:
8 parts of speech
 Relative pronouns
 Tense
 Active and passive voice

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/730/01/
English – 8 parts of speech
八大詞類
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Noun
Pronoun
Adjective / Article
Adverb
Verb
Preposition
Conjunction
Interjection
1. Noun 名詞
A noun is a word that denotes a person, place,
or thing. In a sentence, nouns answer the
questions who and what.

Proper noun


Common noun :

Collective noun

Countable noun – singular / plural
Noncountable (mass noun)
Nouns with Adjectives
普通名詞
可數
集合名詞
(family, people, team)
專有名詞
(Wall Street, July)
不可數
物質名詞
(water, air, furniture)
抽象名詞
(beauty, health, anger)
(有單數 複數)
a/an, the, no
this / that
each / every
many, several
a number of
one of the
a couple of
few
(無單數複數差別)
the, this, that, no
much
A great deal of
little
some
any
a lot of
lots of
plenty of
no
none of the
most
more
all
enough
Examples:
 Count Singular:
I ate an apple.
I rode the bus.
Does she live in this house? No, she lives in that house over
there.

Count Plural:
I like to feed the birds.
Do you want these books? No, I want those books up there.
Cats are interesting pets.

Noncount:
The water is cold.
This milk is going sour.
Music helps me relax.
Noun and Article
a, an
Count
singular
Count
plural
Noncount
the
this
that
these
those
no
article
Count and Noncount Nouns with
Adjectives
Most of the time, this doesn't matter with adjectives. For example,
you can say, "The cat was gray" or "The air was gray."
However, the difference between a countable and uncountable
noun does matter with certain adjectives, such as "some/any,"
"much/many," and "little/few.“
Some/Any - countable and uncountable nouns.




There is some water on the floor.
There are some Mexicans here.
Do you have any food?
Do you have any apples?
Much/Many:
Much - modifies only uncountable nouns.
Many - modifies only countable nouns.


We don't have much time to get this done.
Many Americans travel to Europe.
Little/Few:
Little - modifies only uncountable nouns.
(a little/very little)
Few - modifies only countable nouns.




He had little food in the house.
The doctor had little time to think in the emergency room.
There are few doctors in town.
Few students like exams.
Other basic rules:
A lot of/lots of: A lot of/lots of are informal
substitutes for much and many. They are used
with uncountable nouns when they mean much
and with countable nouns when they mean
many.




They have lots of (much) money in the bank.
A lot of (many) Americans travel to Europe.
We got lots of (many) mosquitoes last summer.
We got lots of (much) rain last summer.
A little bit of: A little bit of is informal and always
precedes an uncountable noun.


There is a little bit of pepper in the soup.
There is a little bit of snow on the ground.
Enough: Enough modifies both countable and
uncountable nouns.


There is enough money to buy a car.
I have enough books to read.
Plenty of: Plenty of modifies both countable and
uncountable nouns. (means “enough” “more”). It
is used before singular uncountable and plural
nouns.


They have plenty of money in the bank.
There are plenty of millionaires in Switzerland.
No: No modifies both countable and uncountable
nouns.


There is no time to finish now.
There are no squirrels in the park.
A number of: several of a particular type of thing .


I decided not to go, for a number of reasons.
There are plenty of millionaires in Switzerland.
Numbers: a number of a particular description.



Small numbers of children are educated at home.
Large numbers of invitations were sent.
Newspapers are produced in vast numbers.
Number: an amount or total.



The number of people killed in road accidents fell last month.
There has been an increasing number of cases of the disease.
A small number of children are educated at home.
amount vs. number

There are subtle differences between 'amount of',
'quantity of' and 'number of'.
'amount of' - singular things you cannot measure.
'quantity of‘ - singular or plural things you can
measure.
'number of‘ - plural things you can measure. (life)
Examples:
She had a certain amount of respect for the sales team, but she always
dissented when they spoke at meetings.
I took control of a large quantity of money.
The disease affected a large number of camels in the town.

This is one of the most common problems in
the language; a very large NUMBER of
people can't tell the difference, which causes
a large AMOUNT of trouble.
(This sentence is an easy way to remember the difference.)
http://www.grammar-monster.com/
http://www.perfectyourenglish.com/usage/a-lot-of.htm

It's just that number refers to nouns that can be
counted - so anything that you can have two,
three, four etc of, you can also have a number of.
So I could have a number of apples, friends,
problems etc.

Amount is used with nouns that can't be counted - ie, you
can't have 2, 3 or 4 sun, money or happiness, you also
can't talk about a "number of money" etc. You would talk
about a "large amount of money (or sun, or happiness)
instead.
Every: used when referring to all the members of a group
of three or more .



The police want to interview every employee about the theft.
The show will be broadcast every weekday morning between 9
and 10.
We're open every day except Sunday.
Each : every thing, person, etc. in a group of two or more,
considered separately .



When you run, each foot leaves the ground before the other
comes down.
Each of the companies supports a local charity.
We each (= Every one of us) wanted the bedroom with the
balcony, so we tossed a coin to decide.
Special notes – “each” “every” 「每個~」

“each” “every” + 單數的名詞 + 動詞也是用單數的語態。
Each child was given a nice present.
(每個小朋友都得到了各自獨特的禮物)
Every child was given a nice present.
(強調每一個小朋友都得到了很不錯的禮物)


each + of 可加複數名詞，但後面的動詞是用單數的語態。
Ex: Each of us has a wonderful time.
every 後接日期有可能接複數名詞。
(X): My mother has to visit the hospital every five week.
(O): My mother has to visit the hospital every five weeks.
Special notes –
“a little” “little” / – “a few” “few”
uncountable

countable
Without the article, the words have a limiting or negative
meaning.
a little = some
a few = some
little = hardly any
few = hardly any
Example:
 I need a little money. - I need some money.
 I need little money. - I need hardly any money.


A few friends visited me. - Some friends visited me.
Few friends visited me. - Hardly any friends visited me.
little = not much
few = not many


Without the article, little / few sound rather formal. That's why
we don't use them very often in everyday English.
A negative sentence with much / many is more common.
Example:
 I need little money. = I do not need much money.
 Few friends visited me. = Not many friends visited me.
Practice – “little” “a little” “few” “a few”
1.
a little
Please stay ______longer.
= Please stay a small amount
of time longer.
2.
little
I understand English and German, but only a_____French.
3.
It seems the patient is not recovering; she still shows
little interest in food.
______
4.
little
I doubt I could do that job very well; I have ______
experience doing that sort of thing.
5.
I have _______experience.
= I have some experience. = I
a little
have a small amount of experience.
6.
Do you understand English?
a little = I understand a small amount
-- Yes, I understand _____.
of English.
little = I understand some English, but I
-- Yes, but very _____.
do not understand very much English.
An Exception to the Rule
For a number of nouns, the rule needs slight revision.
Certain nouns in English belong to both classes: they have both a
noncount and a count meaning. Normally the noncount meaning is
abstract and general and the count meaning concrete and specific.
(Count)
• I've had some difficulties finding a job.
• The talks will take place in the Albert building.
• The city was filled with bright lights and harsh sounds.
(Noncount)
• She succeeded in school with little difficulty.
• I dislike idle talk.
• Light travels faster than sound.
• How about having some coffee? Two coffees, please.
Both Countable and uncountable

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
“Be specific” or “general idea”
war
coffee
time
love
lunch
There is a war in Iraq. War is dangerous
Can I have a large coffee. I don’t drink coffee.
I had a good time yesterday.
Time is more important than money,
When I was a boy, I had two loves.
Love is hard.
Did you have a good lunch?
Did you have lunch?
可數
不可數
She had many experiences.
Does she have enough experience?
The lights were bright.
Light hurts my eyes.
There's a hair in my soup!
Hair is important on a cold day.
Give me three coffees.
I'd love some coffee.
We study sugars in organic chemistry.
Put sugar in my coffee.
The papers were stacked on the table.
We wrote on paper.
http://www.cybertranslator.idv.tw/grammar/nouns.htm
Collective noun
It’s one word for many.
 It “usually” describes a group of things or
people as a unit.
 -singular

http://www.ojohaven.com/collectives/
Collective nouns are used to define a group of two
or more objects.










A flock of seagulls
A bunch of grapes
An army of soldiers
An army of about 2000 men
A crowd of people
A school of fish
A swarm of bees
A pride of lions
A colony of bats
A litter of kittens









A team of oxen
A litter of piglets
A crew of sailors
A range of mountains
An atlas of maps
A class of students
A troop of boy scouts
A herd of sheep
A pack of wolves.
Collective noun:
整體時被看作單數名詞;
指整體的構成分子時被看作複數名詞。
Examples:
The committee grants its permission for the artists to
place her sculpture in the park. (people as an unit)
The committee put their signatures on the document.
(all the members in the group need to sign the document “individually”)
family
(1) a group of people who are related to each other, such as a
mother, a father, and their children.


I come from a large family.
He hasn't any family.
(2) the children of a family



Women shouldn't have to choose between career and family (=
having children).
Paul and Alison are hoping to start a family (= have children)
soon.
My dad died when we were small so my mum raised the family
on her own.
(3) a pair of adult animals and their babies

We've got a family of squirrels living in our garden.
people “人”, ”人們”, ”家人” in general
當 people 指 “人 persons” 或著泛指 “人們”, 或者指特定合
的人以及家裡人時 , 它是個無標記的複數名詞.






There are ten people present.
The streets were crowded with people.
People will laugh at you.
All my people are in India.
Who are these people?
My wife’s people are staying with us now.
people ”民族”
people 作”民族”“種族”時,就變
成了規則的可數名詞 (peoplepeoples)

The Chinese are a hard-working people.
(中華民族是個勤勞的民族 )


Ireland was inhabited by two peoples.
A people is all the men, women, and children of
a particular country or race.
(一個民族是指一個國家或種族的所有的男人,女人和兒童.)
the people
-
the large number of ordinary men and women
who do not have positions of power in society
the people 指一個國家的人民或全世界的人民, 它在
形式上仍是單數,但是它的動詞,根據概念一致原則,
要使用複數.




She claims to be the voice of the people.
The President has lost the support of the people.
He lived for the people and died for the people.
The French nobles oppressed the people.
Obama’s Victory Speech at Chicago’s
Grant Park

The road ahead will be long. Our climb will
be steep. We may not get there in one
year or even in one term. But, America, I
have never been more hopeful than I am
tonight that we will get there. I promise you,
we as a people will get there.
Nov-05 2008
http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=96624326
Question:

Sixty people means a huge party.
主詞 sixty people為複數,其動詞為何是用單數?
Answer:
people 從形式上看是複數, 但概念上卻是單數. 它
表達的是六十個人這個數目.
 Fifteen years represents a long period of his life.
十五年代表了他一生中的一個很長的時期
 One hundred miles was covered in a single night.
一夜間就走了一百英里.
 Sixty
Percent = per cent
percent用作名詞時, 無複數形式, 不加 “s”.
Examples:

45 per cent of Americans were against it.
Prices have risen 6 percent in the past year.

You got 20 percent of the answers right.

Percent = per cent

當單個詞 percent 或 percent of 名詞充當主
詞時, 動詞採用單數還是採用複數, 完全取
決於有關名詞的單複數形式.
 Ten
percent of the pupils are absent today.
 Thirty percent of the farmland has been
planted to oil crops.
 Over ninety percent of the islanders here are
illiterate
Practice – “true” or “false”
O I practice every day.
__1.
O
__2. Cats are interesting pets.
O
__3. I like to feed the birds.
O
__4. Can I have some chips?
O
__5. She has a lot of strength.
__6. I have no courage to do that.
O
O The water is cold.
__7.
O
__8. This milk is going sour.
Practice – “true” or “false”
O
__9. Music helps me relax.
O
__10.
I'm meeting a group of friends for dinner.
O
__11.People like to be made to feel important.
X
__12.The teacher asked us to answer each questions on the
book.
X
__13.My mother has to visit the hospital every two day.
x
__14.
Each of us have a wonderful time.
Practice – “is” or “are”
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
is probably not enough. (talk about eggs)
A dozen ___
A dozen ___
are coming over this afternoon. (talk
about people)
is very poor.
Her family ___
My family ___
are all here.
is very large.
My family ___
are all thin.
My family ___
are substandard.
Five percent of the samples ___
are great people.
The Chinese ____a
2. Pronoun
代名詞
A pronoun is a word that takes the place of a noun
in a sentence.
Examples:
 She decided to go to a movie.
 She planned to ask him for an interview.
Relative pronouns
General Usage in Defining Clauses
Relative pronouns are that, who, whom, whose, which,
where, when, and why. They are used to join clauses to
make a complex sentence.
Relative pronouns are used at the beginning of the
subordinate clause which gives some specific information
about the main clause.



This is the house that Jack built.
I don't know the day when Jane marries him.
The professor, whom I respect, was tenured.
In English, the choice of the relative
pronoun depends on the type of clause
it is used in.
There are two types of clauses distinguished:
 defining (restrictive) relative clauses and
 non-defining (non-restrictive) relative
clauses.
Defining relative clauses = restrictive relative clauses
provide some essential information that explains the main clause.
The information is crucial for understanding the sentence correctly and
cannot be omitted.
Defining clauses are opened by a relative pronoun and ARE NOT
separated by a comma from the main clause.
Function in
the
sentence
Reference to
People
Things / concepts Place
Time
Reason
Subject
who, that
which, that
Object
that, who, whom
which, that where when why
Possessive
whose
whose, of which
Some special uses of relative pronouns
in defining clauses that / who
Referring to people, both that and who can be used. That
may be used to referring to someone in general:


He is the kind of person that/who will never let you down.
I am looking for someone that/who could give me a ride to
Chicago.
However, when a particular person is being spoken about, who
is preferred:


The old lady who lives next door is a teacher.
The girl who wore a red dress attracted everybody's attention
at the party.
that / which
There several cases when that is more appropriate than
which:
1.
After the pronouns all, any(thing), every(thing), few,
little, many, much, no(thing), none, some(thing):

The police usually ask for every detail that helps
identify the missing person.
Marrying a congressman is all (that) she wants.

2. After verbs that answer the question WHAT?
For example, say, suggest, state, declare, hope, think, write,
etc. In this case, the whole relative clause functions as the
object of the main clause:


Some people say (that) success is one percent of talent and
ninety-nine percent of hard work.
The chairman stated at the meeting (that) his company is
part of a big-time entertainment industry.
3. After the noun modified by an adjective in the
superlative degree:

This is the funniest story (that) I have ever read! - that
used as the object
4. After ordinal numbers, e.g., first, second, etc.:

The first draft (that) we submitted was really horrible. that used as the object
5. If the verb in the main clause is a form of BE:

This is a claim that has absolutely no reason in it. - that
used as the subject
3. Adjective
形容詞
An adjective is a word that modifies, or describes,
a noun or pronoun. Adjectives may precede nouns,
or they may appear after be verbs (am, are, is)
Examples:
 We live in the red brick house.
 She is tall for her age.
形容詞的作用:
Ex. She is a tall girl.
1. 在名詞前 作修飾,限定
I have a small dog.
2. 在動詞後 作主詞補語
Ex. She is tall.
I am beautiful.
3. 在受詞後 作受詞補語
Ex. She made me angry .
He made me happy.
Article
冠詞
Articles include a, an, and the. They precede
a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence.
Examples:
 They wanted a house with a big porch.
 He bought the blue sweater on sale.
形容詞的順序:
限定詞 + 評斷 + 尺寸/形狀 + 年紀/新舊 + 顏色 + 起源 + 物質
非人稱形容詞
“非人稱形容詞”不能用人當主詞
 通常以虛主詞 it 當主詞

necessary, important, convenient, possible,
impossible, natural, difficult, hard…
Ex. It is important for us to study English.
It is impossible for me to finish homework today.
It is hard to understand this question.
it is convenient for you to live close to the bus station.

有 a 形式的形容詞 只能作“敘述使用”
alike (相似的) , alive (活著的), afraid (害怕的),
alone (單獨的), asleep (睡著的), awake (醒的),
aware (知道的), ashamed (羞愧的) …
Ex. The girl is afraid..
She is an afraid girl. X
The fish is still alive.
She is awake
Special notes:
•複合形容詞
•動詞可變成形容詞
1. 以現在分詞的形式 (+ ing)
A rolling stone gathers no moss.
2. 以過去分詞的形式 (+ ed或不規則變化)
I will accept a written apology.
Practice: find Verb form adjectives
1. Many kind carpenters offered to repair the broken porch. break
2. Never kiss a smiling crocodile.
3. My father prefers to drink filtered spring water.
4. This isn’t chocolate ice cream; it’s frozen chocolate milk!
5. The fallen leaves covered the new driveway.
6. She was happy to find the translated version of the book.
7. I’d rather eat at a recently inspected restaurant.
8. Are you just hoping it will happen or is it a done deal?
4. Adverb
副詞
Just as adjectives modify nouns, adverbs modify, or further
describe, verbs. Adverbs may also modify adjectives.
(Many, though not all, adverbs end in -ly.)
Examples:
 He waved wildly to get her attention.
(the adverb wildly modifies the verb waved)
 The shirt he wore to the party was extremely bright.
(the adverb extremely modifies the adjective bright)
副詞的種類
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
時間副詞
地方副詞
頻率副詞
狀態副詞
程度副詞
•before, early, now
•here, at the station
•always, never, often
•well, loudly, fast
•very, much, too
動詞
頻率
時間
Ben
enthusiasin the pool
tically
swims
every
morning
before
dawn
to keep in
shape.
Dad
walks
every
afternoon
before
supper
to get a
newspaper.
before
lunch.
to prepare
for a
contest.
Jason
sings
狀態
habitually
loudly
地方
to town
every
in his room
morning
目的
5. Verb
動詞
1. 依句型分類
2. 依功能分類
Transitive
Intransitive
不及物動詞
Main verb
實義動詞
Auxiliary Verb
Regular
3. 依詞型變化分類
及物動詞
助動詞
規則動詞
Irregular 不規則動詞
A verb is a word that denotes action, or a state of
being, in a sentence.
Examples:
 Tom rides the bus every day.
 Paul was a good leader.
There may be multiple verbs one a sentence, or
there may be a verb phrase consisting of a verb
plus a helping verb.
 She turned the key and opened the door.
 Jackson was studying when I saw him last.
6. Preposition
介係詞
Prepositions work in combination with a noun or pronoun to
create phrases that modify verbs, nouns/pronouns, or
adjectives. Prepositional phrases convey a spatial, temporal,
or directional meaning.
1. Prepositions of Place and location
2. Prepositions of Time
3. Prepositions of Direction / Movement
4. Prepositions of Manner
5. Prepositions of Purpose
6. Prepositions of Materials
7. Prepositions of Similarity
8. Prepositions of Agent / Source
9. Prepositions of Comparison
10. Prepositions of Measurement
(1) Prepositions of Place and location
地方或位置的介詞










In
On
Over
Under
underneath
Above
Below
By
Beside
Next to








In front of
Around
Between
Among
At
Near
Behind
before
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DUNYx8LxkL0&feature=related (prep song)
at / on / in (地方)
at
small location
a specific place.
number (for a building,
house or apartment.)
He is waiting at the bus stop.
He lives at a small village.
He lives at No. 200, First
Avenue.
She works at that restaurant.
on
road / street / highway
direction
island / mountain
He lives on First Avenue.
He lives on the north of
Taiwan.
in
The information is in the lower
/ upper corner of the page.
city / state / country / region /
She’s in the middle of
state / continent
something.
book / newspaper / magazine
He lives in Taipei.
He lives in Canada.
(2) Prepositions of Time

Specific time – between, by, from – to, till,
within, at, on, in, before, after

General time – at, by, in, on

Length of time – at, during, since, through, for
at / on / in (時間)
at
Time
At 5 pm / At 11:40
At midnight
At lunchtime
At sunset
on
Specific day
Days
Date
Holiday
On Friday
On my birthday
On October 6th
On Christmas Day
Month
Year
Century
In October
In 2009
In the 18th century
In the past
In the 1980s
In the Middle Ages
in
(3) Prepositions of Direction / Movement
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




To
From
Up
Down
Along
Into
Out of
through
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Across
Away from
Towards
Off
Onto
around
onto / on to / on
ON + TO = onto: signifies movement toward a surface

examples:
Ann climbed onto the roof.
He jumped onto the horse.
The burglar climbed on to the roof.

on 既可表示位置, 也可以表示方向
Let’s sit on the grass.
She fell on the floor.
He jumped on the horse.
into / in to / in
IN + TO = into: signifies movement toward the interior of a
volume
With verbs of motion, "into" and "in" are interchangeable
except when the preposition is the last word or occurs
directly before an adverbial of time, manner, or frequency.


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
The patient went into the doctor's office. The patient went in.
Our new neighbors moved into the house next door yesterday.
Our new neighbors moved in yesterday.
Now what kind of trouble has she gotten herself into?
Now what sort of trouble is she in?
(4) Prepositions of Manner



With – please carry this box with care.
In – the man shouted at the driver in anger.
By – you have to learn your multiplication tables by heart.
(5) Prepositions of Purpose


for – The box is used for a project.
On – They went to New York on business.
So that - They work hard so that the project would be ready in time.
In order to - In order to become a champion, you have to word hard.
For the purpose of - He got a cat for the purpose of catching the mice.
(6) Prepositions of Materials



Of – The desk is make of wood.
From – Wine is made from grapes.
In – Can you answer it in English?
(7) Prepositions of Similarity


As – We use the water jug as a vase to put the flower in.
Like – Your hands are cold like ice.
(8) Prepositions of Agent / Source


By –The concert was organized by Tom.
From – They got the answer from the encyclopedia.
(9) Prepositions of Comparison
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To – We won the game by 5 to 3.
I prefer oranges to apples.
With – He compared his camera with mine.
By – He is taller than I by 2 inches.
(10) Prepositions of Measurement

Of – Can I have a glass of milk, please?
7. Conjunction
連接詞
A conjunction is a word that joins two
independent clauses, or sentences, together.
Coordinating conjunctions (對等)
 Subordinate conjunctions (附屬)
 Correlative conjunctions (相關)
 Conjunctive adverbs (連接詞副詞)

Coordinating conjunctions 對等連接詞
and, but, or, for, so, yet, nor
• A coordinate conjunction is a word used to connect
words, phrases, and independent clauses.
(a complete sentence can stand alone.)
• Use a comma when you connect two main clauses
with a coordinating conjunction.
NOR = neither-nor.
It is not extinct, but it is not used nearly as often as
the other conjunctions.
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

He is neither same nor brilliant.
That is neither what I said nor what I meant.
That is not what I meant to say, nor should you
interpret my statement as an admission of guilt.
(for negative expression)
Yet = but, nevertheless.
It is not extinct, but it is not used nearly as often as
the other conjunctions.


John plays basketball well, yet his favorite sport
is badminton.
The visitors complained loudly about the heat,
yet they continued to play golf every day.
For= because, since.
Its function is to introduce the reason for the
preceding clause:


John thought he had a good chance to get the job,
for his father was on the company's board of
trustees.
Most of the visitors were happy just sitting around in
the shade, for it had been a long, dusty journey on
the train.
(Some people regard the conjunction for as rather highfalutin and literary, and it
does tend to add a bit of weightiness to the text.)
True or False:
X Enrichment may be particularly important when the
1. ____
number of organisms is small, for detection of
asymptomatic carriers, or when specimens are delayed in
transit.
O Enrichment may be particularly important when the
2. ____
number of organisms is small, for detection of
asymptomatic carriers, or for specimens delayed in transit.
Which one is correct ?
1. These mice became dehydrated, lost weight, and four mice
died.
O 2. These mice became dehydrated and lost weight, and four
mice died.
3. The mixture was heated, shaken, centrifuged, and the
supernatant fluid frozen.
O 4. The mixture was heated, shaken, and centrifuged, and the
supernatant fluid was frozen.
Subordinate conjunctions
附屬連接詞 (有時稱為從屬字)
Common subordinate conjunctions
after
although
as
as if
as long as
as though
because
before
even if
even though
if
if only
in order that
now that
once
rather than
since
so that
than
that
though
till
unless
until
when
whenever
where
whereas
wherever
while

A subordinate conjunction is a word used to introduce a
dependant clause and show the relationship between
the independent clause and the dependent clause.

When a dependent clause precedes an independent
clause, there is a comma between the two. However,
when the independent clause comes first, there is no
need to separate the two clauses with a comma.
Example:
Although he was ill, he worked hard.
He worked hard although he was ill.
Correlative conjunctions 相關連接詞
Correlative conjunctions join words, phases, or
clauses of equal rank. The correlative conjunctions
are always in pairs.
both-and, either-or, neither-nor,
not only-but, not only-also,
whether-or, as-as
Which one is correct ?
1. Increased turnover has been shown both in monkeys
and humans.
O 2. Increased turnover has been shown in both monkeys
and humans.
O 3. Increased turnover has been shown both in monkeys
and in humans.
4. The 110S structures were relatively labile either after
centrifugation or various detergent treatments.
O 5. The 110S structures were relatively labile after either
centrifugation or various detergent treatments.
O 6. The 110S structures were relatively labile either after
centrifugation or after various detergent treatments.
whether (conj) = if (expressing doubts)
whether…or = (used to introduce two or more possibilities)
不管是...(或是)
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Ask him whether he can come or not.
I was only questioning whether we have the money to
fund such a project.
I'm wondering whether to have the fish or the beef.
It all depends on whether or not she's got the time.
Let's face it - you're going to be late whether you go by
bus or train.
I’m going, whether she likes it or not.
Practice – “true” or “false”
X I work not only at this restaurant, but also that pet store.
__1.
O I work at not only this restaurant, but also that pet store.
__2.
O Not only did he turn up late, but he also forgot his books.
__3.
Not only 是屬於否定副詞開頭的句子, 所以一定要用倒裝句.
O Not only can she speak English fluently, but she can also
__4.
speak French well.
O
__5. She not only can speak English fluently but also can
speak French well.
O 6. She can not only speak English fluently but also speak
__
French well.
O I not only wrote interesting novels but wrote wonderful
__7.
essays.
O I want not only to participate in the contest but also to win
__8.
the first prize.
X The controversy not only damages sales but also
__9.
shareholder confidence.
The controversy not only damages sales but also damages shareholder confidence.
O
__10.
Bob not only wrote stories but transformed them.
Doing without but or also tends to reduce formality, or to reduce stiffness
in formal prose, and can benefit short and straightforward constructions.
Conjunctive Adverbs 連接詞副詞
Conjunctive adverbs join two independent sentences, as
transitional words.
Conjunctive adverbs are sometimes used as simple
adverbs.
moreover, however
nevertheless, consequently
as a result
Tense
時態
顯示“時間的形式”
1. 發生的時間 ?
2. 動作到達某一點時間
已經完成 或還在進行 ? 或是將要執行
動詞的時式– “三時四式”
以時間分:
1. present
2. past
3. future
以動作形式分:
1. simple
2. progressive
3. perfect
4. perfect progressive
English Tenses – Graphic Comparison
Moment in time
•action that takes place once, never or several times.
•actions that happen one after another .
•actions that suddenly take place .
Period of time
•action that started before a
certain moment and lasts
beyond that moment.
•actions taking place at the
same time.
Result
•action taking place before a
certain moment in time.
•puts emphasis on the result.
Duration
•action taking place before a
certain moment in time.
•puts emphasis on the duration.
http://www.ego4u.com/en/cram-up/grammar/tenses-graphic
中文與英文時式比較
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中文 - 沒有動詞的變化
英文 - 動詞變化表示時間及口氣
我正在看電視
I am watching TV.
我每天看電視
I watch TV every day.
我昨天看電視
I watched TV yesterday.
我明天要看電視
I will watch TV tomorrow.
About perfect tense
完成式的觀念
動作“何時”發生?
過去完成式
(had+ P.P.)
Ex. We had finished the experiment
before you got here.
現在完成式
(have/has+ P.P.)
Ex. We have just finished my experiment.
未來完成式
(will have+ P.P.)
Ex. We will have finished the experiment by Jan 5th.
General Guidelines for Use of Perfect
Tenses
In general the use of perfect tenses is determined
by their relationship to the tense of the primary
narration.


If the primary narration is in simple past, then action
initiated before the time frame of the primary
narration is described in past perfect.
If the primary narration is in simple present, then
action initiated before the time frame of the primary
narration is described in present perfect.
Time-orienting words and phrases like before, after,
by the time, and others—when used to relate two
or more actions in time—can be good indicators of
the need for a perfect-tense verb in a sentence.
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By the time the Senator finished (past) his speech, the
audience had lost (past perfect) interest.
After everyone has finished (present perfect) the main course,
we offer (present: habitual action) our guests dessert.
After everyone has finished (present perfect) the main course,
we will offer (future: specific one-time action) our guests dessert.
Long before the sun rose (past) , the birds had arrived (past
perfect) at the feeder.
Practice:

By the time the Senator finishes (present: habitual action) his
speech, the audience _______
has lost (present perfect) interest.

By the time the Senator finishes (present: suggesting future time)
will have lost (future perfect)
his speech, the audience ___________
interest.

After everyone had finished (past perfect) the main course, we
offered (past) our guests dessert.
______

Long before the sun rises (present: habitual action), the birds
have arrived (present perfect) at the feeder.
__________

Long before the sun rises (present: suggesting future time), the
will have arrived (future perfect) at the feeder.
birds ____________
Controlling Shifts in a Paragraph or Essay
General guideline: Establish a primary tense for the main
discourse, and use occasional shifts to other tenses to indicate
changes in time frame.

Rely on past tense to narrate events and to refer to an author or
an author's ideas as historical entities (biographical information about a
historical figure or narration of developments in an author's ideas over time).

Use present tense to state facts, to refer to perpetual or habitual
actions, and to discuss your own ideas or those expressed by an
author in a particular work.

Future action may be expressed in a variety of ways, including the
use of will, shall, is going to, are about to, tomorrow and other
adverbs of time, and a wide range of contextual cues.
1. 引用已經發表的資料時，請用現在式（present tense）
Example:
This drug inhibits the growth of the tumor.
2. 目前自己的研究結果則採用過去式（past tense）
Example:
They found a malignant tumor in her breast.
在論文中常常擺盪於不同的時態，主要是在不同的論文欄位
，例如摘要多採用過去式，同理材料與方法和結果皆採用過
去式，緒論和討論則多採用現在式。
Active Versus Passive Voice
主動與被動

Active voice is used for most non-scientific writing. Using
active voice for the majority of your sentences makes
your meaning clear for readers, and keeps the
sentences from becoming too complicated or wordy.
However……………

Even in scientific writing, too much use of passive voice
can cloud the meaning of your sentences.
Scientists or engineers are often encouraged to write in
passive voice to lend their writing a sense of objectivity--to
take themselves and their actions and opinions out of the
experimental results.
However….. passive voice = wordy
Examples:
•"We believe the mutation causes cancer.“ (active)
•"The data suggests that the mutation causes cancer." (active)
•It was found that....
•The authors found ..
To be continued ~