Chapter 5:
MOTIVATION THROUGH
FEELINGS OF COMPETENCE
AND CONFIDENCE
I think I can, I think I can,
I know I can …
Theories of
Exercise Behaviour
Belief-Attitude
Theories
Competence-Based
Theories
Control-Based
Theories
Stage-Based
Theories
Hybrid
Models
Example:
Theory of
Planned Behaviour
Example:
Self-Efficacy
Theory
Example:
Self-Determination
Theory
Example:
Transtheoretical
Model
Example:
HAPA
Chapter 5: Aims
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review how people perceive competence
in the physical domain
outline achievement goal perspectives and
related theories as viable ways to study
motivation in exercise
review Self-Efficacy Theory
present some alternative views on
confidence relevant to the study of
physical activity
PHYSICAL SELFPERCEPTIONS
Physical self-perception hierarchy
proposed by Fox
GLOBAL
SELFESTEEM
PHYSICAL
SELFWORTH
SPORT
COMPETENCE
BODY
ATTRACTIVENESS
PERCEIVED
STRENGTH
PHYSICAL
CONDITION
GOAL PERSPECTIVES
THEORY
"success and failure are not concrete events. They
are psychological states consequent on perception of
reaching or not reaching goals......It follows that, if there is
cultural variation in the personal qualities that are seen to be
desirable, success and failure will be viewed differently in
different cultures" (Maehr and Nicholls, 1980)
Task and Ego Goal Orientations
• There are two main goal orientations: task and ego based
on how people construe competence
• task orientation:
 ability and effort are less clearly differentiated
 cues used to assess competence are effort and task completion
 a self-referenced focus
• ego orientation:
 ability and effort are more clearly differentiated
 cues used to assess competence are outcomes and ability relative to
others
 An ‘other-referenced’ focus
Results from physical activity
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Research shows associations between a task orientation and:
beliefs that effort produces success (positive association: +)
motives of skill development and team membership (+)
beliefs that the purpose of sport and physical education is for mastery,
fitness, and self-esteem (+)
perceptions of competence (+)
positive affect (+)
negative affect (negative association: -)
parental task orientation (+)
various measures or markers of behaviour (+).
Biddle et al., 2003
Results from physical activity
• Research shows associations between an ego
orientation and:
• beliefs that ability produces success (+)
• motives of status/recognition and competition (+)
• beliefs that the purpose of sport and physical
education is for social status and being a good
citizen (+)
• perceptions of competence (+)
• parental ego orientation (+).
Biddle et al., 2003
Task and ego goal orientation scores
(Wang & Biddle, 2001)
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Task and ego goal orientation
scores, expressed in Z scores, for 5
clusters, showing Clusters 1 and 2
with high task orientation.
These clusters displayed the most
positive motivational profiles on
other variables. The least motivated
groups was clusters 3 and 5
Note: Z scores are standardised
scores with mean=0 and SD=1,
hence scores above 0 are higher
than the overall average, and those
below 0 are below average.
Typically, scores deviating at least
+/- 0.5 are considered ‘significant’.
2
1.5
1
4
0.5
Z score
•
Task
Ego
0
-0.5
1
-1
-1.5
3
Clusters
5
SELF-EFFICACY THEORY
Sonstroem and Morgan's (1989)
exercise and self-esteem model
• Physical self-efficacy is a central construct in this
model
• efficacy is a lower-order 'specific' construct in the
model that represents …
• the "lowest generality level of the competence
dimension. Self-conceptions at this level should be
the most accurate and the most readily influenced
by environmental interactions".
SELFESTEEM
PHYSICAL
COMPETENCE
PHYSICAL
SELFEFFICACY
PHYSICAL
ACCEPTANCE
Sonstroem and Morgan's (1989)
exercise and self-esteem model
What is Self-efficacy?
• "people's judgements of their capabilities to
organise and execute courses of action
required to attain designated types of
performances.
• It is concerned not with the skills one has
but with judgements of what one can do
with whatever skills one possesses"
(Bandura, 1986, p. 391).
Efficacy and Outcome Expectations
• Efficacy expectations: beliefs related to the
ability to carry-out a particular behaviour
• Outcome expectations: beliefs concerning
whether the behaviour will produce a
particular result (outcome)
Sources of information for selfefficacy beliefs
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prior success and performance attainment
imitation and modelling
verbal and social persuasion
judgements of physiological states
Measurement of self-efficacy
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magnitude of self-efficacy: the ordering
of tasks by difficulty
strength of self-efficacy: assessment of
ones' capabilities for performing a
particular task
generality of self-efficacy: the extent to
which efficacy expectations from one
situation generalise to other situations
Increases in self-efficacy after
treadmill running for post-MI men
(Ewart et al., 1983)
Exertion
Lift
Sex
Climb
Run
Walk
0
10
20
30
40
%SEChange
50
60
Studies on medical patients in
exercise rehabilitation
• self-efficacy judgements can generalise but
will be strongest for activities similar to the
activity experienced
• self-efficacy in 'dissimilar' activities can be
enhanced through counselling
• self-efficacy better predicts changes in
exercise behaviour than generalised
expectancies of locus of control
Exercise and self-efficacy responses
of older adults
• SE can be increased through intervention
• SE will predict participation, particularly in
the early stages of an exercise programme
• SE declines after a period of inactivity
Research by McAuley et al.
Self-efficacy and exercise: A
summary (McAuley & Blissmer, 2000)
SELF-EFFICACY
Self-efficacy as a
determinant of
physical activity
Physical activity
adoption
Physical activity
maintenance
Self-efficacy as an
outcome of
physical activity
Post-programme
follow-up
Acute physical
activity
Chronic physical
activity
Self-efficacy
interventions
Enhancement of
efficacy, affect,
and adherence
Other approaches to confidence and
physical activity: Performance estimation
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Confidence may be affected by:
the sex-typed nature of the task: confidence is
likely to be low in situations where the task is
perceived as 'inappropriate'
social evaluation: females may underestimate
their ability when they are being evaluated or
compared, such as in competition
feedback: females may achieve better levels of
performance when given objective and accurate
feedback
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Other approaches to confidence and
physical activity: Self-Presentational
Processes
Self-presentational concerns may affect
physical activity choice, such as …
when one perceives the activity to be
incompatible with ones' image
where anxiety is felt in displaying low
levels of physical competence.
Chapter 5: Conclusions
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that participation in physical activity is associated with perceptions of competence
more specific perceptions of competence/efficacy are likely to be better predictors of
specific behaviours than generalised beliefs in competence.
goal perspectives theory proposes that people can define competence and success in
different ways, the main ones being ego and task orientations. Research is consistent
in showing the motivational benefits of a task orientation, either singly or in
combination with an ego orientation
research using self-efficacy with patient groups demonstrates that exercise selfefficacy can be developed; self-efficacy judgements can generalise but will be
strongest for activities similar to the activity experienced; self-efficacy in 'dissimilar'
activities can be enhanced through counselling; self-efficacy better predicts changes
in exercise behaviour than generalised expectancies
research with non-patient groups has shown that exercise self-efficacy can be
increased through intervention, will predict participation, particularly in the early
stages of an exercise programme, will decline after a period of inactivity, and is
associated with positive exercise emotion.
self-presentational processes offer additional understanding to physical activity
confidence and anxiety