Nuclear Technology and Energy
Per F. Peterson
Professor
Department of Nuclear Engineering
University of California, Berkeley
March 2, 2008
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U.C. Berkeley and Nuclear Science
Seaborgium
Berkelium
Americium Lawrencium
Neptunium and Plutonium
Uranium
Californium
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Binding Energy: Why Nuclear Power is Possible
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The mass of an atom is smaller than the sum of its parts
The difference is called the “mass defect”
The “binding energy” is the energy required to hold the atom together
E = Dmc2
If we split or combine atoms, we can release some of the binding energy
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Energy from Nuclear Fission
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Fission Fuel Energy Density: 8.2 x 1013 J/kg
Fuel Consumed by 1000-MWe Plant: 3.2 kg/day
Waste:
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Energy from Nuclear Fusion
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Fusion Fuel Energy Density: 3.4 x 1014 J/kg
Fuel Consumed by 1000-MWe Plant: 0.6 kg/day
Waste:
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Energy from Fossil Fuels
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Fossil Fuel (Coal) Energy Density: 2.9 x 107 J/kg
Fuel Consumed by 1000-MWe Plant: 7,300,000 kg/day
Waste:
2005 Global Coal Consumption: 5.4 billion tons
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Nuclear has very low life-cycle CO2 emissions
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France closed its last coal mine in April, 2004
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California Electricity Consumption 2004
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Why renewed interest?
Improved performance of existing U.S. nuclear plants
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Reliable Power Production
100
Capacity Factor (%)
89.6 *
90
80
70
60
50
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
2005
* 2005 Preliminary
Source: Global Energy Decisions / Energy Information Administration
Updated: 4/06
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Stable, Low Production Costs
9.0
8.0
7.0
6.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
Cents per kwhr
2005
Nuclear 1.72
Coal 2.21
Gas 7.51
Oil 8.09
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
Production Costs = Operations and Maintenance Costs + Fuel Costs
Source: Global Energy Decisions
Updated: 6/06
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The major near-term question: can new nuclear plants be
built on schedule, for a reasonable cost, and operate
reliably, safely, and securely?
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Resource inputs will affect future capital costs and
competition
• Nuclear: 1970’s vintage PWR, 90% capacity factor, 60 year life [1]
– 40 MT steel / MW(average)
– 190 m3 concrete / MW(average)
• Wind: 1990’s vintage, 6.4 m/s average wind speed, 25% capacity
factor, 15 year life [2]
– 460 MT steel / MW (average)
– 870 m3 concrete / MW(average)
• Coal: 78% capacity factor, 30 year life [2]
– 98 MT steel / MW(average)
– 160 m3 concrete / MW(average)
• Natural Gas Combined Cycle: 75% capacity factor, 30 year life [3]
– 3.3 MT steel / MW(average)
– 27 m3 concrete / MW(average)
Concrete + steel are >95% of construction
inputs, and become more expensive in a
carbon-constrained economy
1. R.H. Bryan and I.T. Dudley, “Estimated Quantities of Materials Contained in a 1000-MW(e)
PWR Power Plant,” Oak Ridge National Laboratory, TM-4515, June (1974)
2. S. Pacca and A. Horvath, Environ. Sci. Technol., 36, 3194-3200 (2002).
3. P.J. Meier, “Life-Cycle Assessment of Electricity Generation Systems and Applications for
Climate Change Policy Analysis,” U. WisconsinReport UWFDM-1181, August, 2002.
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New nuclear infrastructure will be more highly
optimized
1978: Plastic models on roll-around carts
2000: 4-D computer aided design
and virtual walk-throughs
McGuire Nuclear Station Reactor Building Models.
2002 NRC processing time for 20-year
license renewal: ~18 months
1000 MW Reactor (Lianyungang Unit 1)
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The new passive light water reactors provide substantial
improvements over earlier designs
AP-1000
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ESBWR
Capable of safe shutdown without an external heat sink or AC power supply
Large reductions in equipment and building size
Reduced security costs
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New licensing and construction plans call for a high
degree of design standardization
Current NRC Construction License Review Plan
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The Generations of Nuclear Energy
Source: DOE Generation IV Project
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Nuclear energy and transportation
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Plug-in hybrids and low-carbon fuels
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World’s Largest Oil Accumulations: What future role for
nuclear energy?
Name
Type
Country
OOIP (109 Bbl)
Orinoco
X-Heavy Oil
Venezuela
1,200
Athabasca
Tar Sand
Canada
869
Cold Lake
Tar Sand
Canada
271
Ghawar
Oil Field
Saudi Arabia
190
Burgan
Oil Field
Kuwait
190
Bolivar Coast
Oil Field
Venezuela
160
Melekess
Tar Sand
Russia
123
Wabasca
Tar Sand
Canada
119
Source: Roadifer 1987
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Canadian tar sands provide a very large resource
Alberta
Athabasca
Peace River
Fort
McMurray
Wabasca
Cold Lake
Edmonton
Lloydminster
• Production from oil sands in Alberta could
be 2.8 million BOPD in 2015, up from 1.2
million BOPD in 2004.
• Current tar sands carbon intensity is 15 to
40% higher than for conventional oil
production
Red Deer
Calgary
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The Pebble Bed Modular Reactor
• Being constructed in South Africa
• Helium-cooled modular reactor uses
“pebble fuel”
• Power output options:
– 200 MWe gas Brayton cycle
– 136 MWe gas Brayton and
286 MWt process
steam production
– 500 MWt hightemperature process heat
– 250 MWc hydrogen
• Can be used to produce
low-carbon transportation
fuels
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High temperature reactors can make hydrogen directly through
for thermo-chemical processes
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ORNL DWG 2001-102R
Nuclear Waste
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Major international R&D efforts have improved the
current understanding of nuclear waste disposal
• Broad scientific consensus exists that deep geologic
isolation can provide long-term, safe and reversible
disposal for nuclear wastes
• 25 years of scientific and technical study led to a positive
site suitability decision for Yucca Mountain in 2002
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Geologic Isolation Places Nuclear Wastes Deep
Underground
Nuclear energy produces small
volumes of waste which makes
it practical to isolate it from the
environment.
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Long-term Safety Requirements are Stringent
Compared to Those for Chemicals
The potential long-term impact from geologic
disposal is limited groundwater contamination,
a problem that current public health systems
already understand how to manage
28 miles
640 miles
The potential
incremental impact
from Yucca Mountain
in the next 1 million
years is small
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Advanced fuel cycles can impact repository
performance
• Yucca Mountain’s current legal
capacity limit is 63,000 MT of spent
fuel
– Current U.S. plants will reach this
limit in 2014
• Technical limit for the current 2000
acre repository footprint is between
120,000 and 300,000 MT of spent
fuel
• Advanced fuel cycles that recycle the
heavy elements in spent fuel would
increase this capacity by a factor of ~
50x.
Under advanced fuel cycles, Yucca Mountain
could potentially hold 500 kg/m of fission
products in 400 km of drifts (2000 acres),
equal to 0.5 trillion tons of coal
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Repository Licensing Involves Detailed
Technical Review
• The EPA has issued a draft one million year safety
standard for Yucca Mountain
– Maximum impact to an individual using ground water must be less
than 15 mrem/year up to 10,000 years, less than 300 mrem/year up
to 1 million years
– Average natural background is 300 mrem/year
• DOE has committed to completing a license application in
2008
– Independent review will be performed the Nuclear Regulatory
Commission
– A decision on a construction license would be reached by 2011
• With a construction license for Yucca Mountain, the U.S.
will have an approved technology for nuclear waste
disposal
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Conclusions
• Recent activity in nuclear energy has been substantial
– Improved performance for existing plants
– Waste repository site selected in United States
» Future remains uncertain
– 2005 Energy Bill provisions for new nuclear construction and R&D
– New research to demonstrate high-efficiency electricity and
hydrogen production
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Fusion Energy
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Thermonuclear fusion reaction rates vary strongly with
temperature
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Progress in D-T fusion
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MFE magnet configurations:complex to simple
Externally Controlled
Stellarator
3-D coils
Planar coils
with nested sets
Tokamak
Low-field
external coils
RFP
No toroidal or
poloidal coils
Spheromak
FRC
Self Organized
No toroidal
field
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Inertial fusion uses the rocket effect to compress fusion
fuel
• “Direct” drive: lasers directly
heat outside of capsule
• “Indirect” drive: lasers or
heavy ions (shown) heat inside
of a hohlraum, indirectly
heating capsule surface
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NIF is designed as the first ICF driver to achieve
ignition and substantial gain
• The National Ignition
Facility is a 1.8million joule laser
under construction at
LLNL
NIF Target
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