Tapping on
teachers’ knowledge bases
of teaching
in a learner-centric learning
environment
FULBRIGHT DISTINGUISHED AWARD IN
TEACHING ROGRAMME 2011
Michael Long
Singapore
Introduction
The quality of an education
cannot exceed
the quality of its teachers.
~McKinsey Report, 2007
Teaching is a performance. (Hooks, 1994;
Fenstermacher & Richardson, 2005;
Duckworth & Goodman in Hatton, 2005)
The act of teaching and learning involves at
least two persons; one who teaches and
one who learns (Fenstermacher &
Richardson, 2005)
Issue
• Every day : act of multi-tasking
• Numerous initiatives : superficial
acceptance and transfer, and don’t see
the link
Consequence
Our learning at teachers’ training or
professional
development
sessions
becomes a figment of our memory
especially when it is not fully internalised
through active transfer and visible
activities, and when the link is not made.
Literature Review
Six major sources that can account for the
variance in students’ academic achievement:
•
•
•
•
•
•
student (50% of the variance);
teachers (30% of the variance).
home (5 to 10% of the variance);
schools (5 to 10% of the variance);
peer effects (5 to 10% of the variance);
principals, (already accounted for under the
‘schools’ category);
John Hattie in Teachers Make a Difference: What Is the Research
Evidence?(2003) (Stronge, 2010)
Implication
‘Effective school learning requires good
teaching, and good teaching requires
professionals who exercise judgements in
constructing the education of their
students’. (Porter and Brophy, 1988)
This judgement has to be supported by the
whole professional knowledge base for
teaching.
My Intention
To present to teachers a reference (or ‘script’)
depicting the link of the fundamental knowledge
bases necessary in building their competencies
surrounding a learner-centric environment.
As a reminder of the core of education of why
we teach, what we teach and how we teach, as
emphasised in the Teach Less, Learn More
(TLLM) initiative, in raising the quality of
teaching while engaging our learners’ hearts
and minds to prepare them for life.
Presentation of Findings
LIFT
THRUST
DRAG
WEIGHT
Figure 1. Forces affecting the flight of an aircraft (Smithsonian Air and Space Museum)
Desirable forces : Lift & Thrust
(Enhance & accelerate performance)





Undesirable forces : Drag & Weight
(Impede & hinder performance)
*Better understanding of pedagogical content knowledge 
(PCK)

Opportunities for reflection

Desirable class size - impact on marking load, quality of
marking, monitoring of assignments and learning, 
relationship and character building

Work-life harmony

Sufficient time allocated for lesson observation by peer
or mentor with time for conference and reflection

Unsure of pedagogical content knowledge (PCK)
Resistance to assessment
Not sure of formative assessment
Incomplete knowledge of the student as a learner
Subject mastery/content knowledge
Effectiveness of professional development programmes
Leadership complement issue

The desire to continue learning

Clarity of leaders’ vision, drive, attitude and beliefs

Knowledge of learning


Self-concept (Attitude and beliefs of individual and the
students)
*Understanding the learner: dispositions,
learning, cultural background/baggage

Availability of resources/technology
style
of

Having good instructional leaders

Large teacher-student ratio

Purposeful professional development programmes

Lack of time for planning and reflection

*Understanding assessment, its forms and purpose


Lack of time and opportunity to observe others in the
development of self (as peer) and others (as mentor)
Seamless integration of subjects (e.g. science and
literacy)


School leaders as instructional leaders
Salary issue
Knowledge Bases for Teaching
Content/Subject
knowledge
Models of
teaching and
learning
General
pedagogical
knowledge
Curriculum
knowledge
Knowledge of
educational
ends
Pedagogical
Content
Knowledge
(PCK)
Knowledge of
educational
contexts
Knowledge of
learners
Knowledge
of self
Figure 2. Adapted from Knowledge bases for teaching: the model (Turner-Bisset, 2001)
Pedagogical Repertoire of an Effective Teacher
Aspect 1
Strategies
Activities
Examples
Analogies
Illustrations
Representations
Aspect 2
Approaches
Storytelling
Socratic dialogue
Drama
Role-play
Simulation
Demonstration
Modelling
Problem-solving
Singing
Playing games
Knowledge
transformation
Question-andanswer
Instructing
Explaining
Giving feedback
Figure 3. Pedagogical repertoire (Turner-Bisset, 2001)
Aspect 3
Acting skills and
strategies
Voice
Vocal animation
Body language
Physical animation
Use of space
Humour
Role-play
Use of props
Surprise
Suspense
Observing children
To teach
Facts
Concepts
Skills
Processes
Beliefs
Attitudes
Organisation
al strategies
Whole-class
Split-class
Large group
Small group
Pair
Individual
Pedagogical Repertoire on a Foundation of Knowledge Bases
Aspect 1
Strategies
Activities
Examples
Analogies
Illustrations
Representations
Aspect 2
Approaches
Storytelling
Socratic dialogue
Drama
Role-play
Simulation
Demonstration
Modelling
Problem-solving
Singing
Playing games
Knowledge transformation
Question-and-answer
Instructing
Explaining
Giving feedback
Aspect 3
Acting skills and
strategies
Voice
Vocal animation
Body language
Physical animation
Use of space
Humour
Role-play
Use of props
Surprise
Suspense
Observing children
To teach
Facts
Concepts
Skills
Processes
Beliefs
Attitudes
Organisational
strategies
Whole-class
Split-class
Large group
Small group
Pair
Individual
Knowledge Bases
Substantive knowledge, syntactic knowledge and beliefs about the subject
Curriculum knowledge and knowledge of educational ends
Models of teaching and learning and general pedagogical knowledge
Knowledge of educational contexts
Knowledge of self
Knowledge of learners
Pedagogical content knowledge
Figure 4. Adapted from a pedagogical repertoire (Turner-Bisset, 2001)
The ‘Script’
Classroom
Management
&
Organisation
Instructional
models &
strategies
Assessment
&
Educational Ends
(Goals, purposes &
values) and Beliefs
Reflective
practices
Representations
Enactive
General Pedagogical
Knowledge & Beliefs
Iconic
Symbolic
Quality
relationship
building
Knowledge of Learners and
Learning & Beliefs
Empirical/Social
Interests
Community
Cognitive
Strengths
Generic
Specific
Breadth
Pedagogical Content
Knowledge
& Beliefs
Structure
Scope
Purpose
Curriculum Knowledge
& Beliefs
Content Knowledge
& Beliefs
Substantive
(Knowing that)
Knowledge of Specific
Contexts
(Subject & Environment)
Syntactic
(Knowing how)
Home
Knowledge of General
Educational Contexts
School
Community
Values
Bloom,
Gagne, etc
Balance
Classroom
SelfConcept
Will &
Effort
Depth
Classroom
Communication
& Discourse
Assessment
Models of
Learning
Theories
Constructivist (Vygotsky, Piaget, Dewey, Bruner)
Behaviourist (Pavlov, Skinner, Watson)
Cognitive (Sweller, Mayer)
Motivation (Maslow, Keller)
Formal
Informal
Social Learning (Bandura)
Others:
Transformative,
Networked,
etc.
Figure 5. Adapted from Gess-Newsome and Lederman (1991), Moore (2000) and Turner-Bisset (2001)
Country
World
Conclusion
• Learning is guided by social interaction
and strategies that evolve within the
‘process of doing’. (Moll, et al, 1992)
• The teacher holds the key in
constructing an environment surrounding
the learners that can support or impede
this realisation.
• The knowledge bases of teachers guide
and inform decisions to be made and
actions to be taken.
Accountability is an ‘outside-in’ process
while responsibility is an ‘inside-out’
process. (Powell, 2010)
Thank You’s
UMD Faculty Members
• Dr James Greenberg
• Dr Letitia Williams
• Dr Jim DeGeorge
• Dr Diane Jass Ketelhut
• Dr Linda Valli
• Dr Margaret Anne Walker
• Dr Ann Schweighofer
• Megan, Beth, and Andy
All schools I have visited, in particular, Paint Branch Elementary;
special thanks to Dr Teston, Mrs Harris, Mrs Hunt and Ms Flores.
The FHI360 family, and the U.S. Department of State, the
Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs.
End