A Brief History of Earth System
Science and Satellite Remote Sensing
Presentation Overview
 Pioneers in the study of atmospheric motions
 Pioneers in the study of cooling and warming influences on the
surface
 Early attempts at forecasting and modeling
 How orbital mechanics explains long-term climate changes
 Scientists prove CO2 is rising, humans are the cause
 A timeline of aerial photography and photogrammetry
 The stratospheric ozone scare & call for global assessments
 NASA’s Earth Science Enterprise & Earth Observing System
 Brief review on why satellite remote sensing is useful
 References & recommended further reading
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25, 2002
Pioneers in Atmospheric Motions
 Edmond Halley (1656-1742), British astronomer 1
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Drew the first documented map of the known trade winds, circa 1686
Although Halley clearly showed the proper trade winds, Halley had trouble
describing the physics behind them. Halley used the laws of buoyancy to try
to describe the phenomena he witnessed. When air is heated, it rises and
as it rises, more air must flow inwards to make up for the void. Halley knew
of the rotation of the Earth and surmised that the incoming air had to move
from the east to compensate.
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25, 2002
Pioneers in Atmospheric Motions
 George Hadley (1685-1768), English lawyer & scientist
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“I think the causes of the General Trade-Winds have not been fully explained by any of
those who have wrote on that subject.” (1735)
In 1735, Hadley expounded upon the ideas of Halley. Instead of simple currents
traveling east, he envisioned a Coriolis acceleration that is latitude dependent.
He also envisioned an "anti-trade" wind that blew to the northeast above the surface
southeast trades and found that the mid-latitude westerly got their eastward velocity
from sinking dense and fast air from aloft. These ideas still hold valid today.
First to describe tropical circulation in 1753. He envisaged the heat surplus of the
equatorial regions driving large-scale circulation cells consisting of air rising in the
tropics and then sinking 30 degrees north and south. This sinking air would then flow
back towards the equator. His simple idea was to become the basis of the general
circulation of the atmosphere as it is understood today.
Both men agreed upon the idea of upper tropospheric meridional circulations. They
knew that the equatorial region would have the highest temperature and therefore the
updrafts in this region would form large convective, unstable regions. As the air flowed
vertically, the divergence in the upper troposphere would split up and travel to the
northern and southern poles. When the circulations eventually reached the colder
regions, the air would become denser, form a downdraft and return to the equatorial
regions along the surface. Although Hadley understood about the Coriolis acceleration,
his idea (along with Halley’s) about one cell in each of the hemispheres was not
correct.
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25, 2002
Pioneers in Atmospheric Motions
 George Hadley
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The area where both Hadley Cells met along the equator was a region of
large instability and created large convective clouds. This region is called
the InterTropical Convergent
Zone (ITCZ), the convergence
describing the surface inflow
of air. The flow to the higher
latitudes gained energy &
would eventually rise at
locations close to latitudes
of 60 degrees. This rising air
behaved similar to the rising
area at the ITCZ, creating a
region of low pressure and
producing regions of higher
precipitation. Again, the rising air
would diverge and produce the
final polar cell.
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25, 2002
An Enlightened American
 Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790), U.S. founding father and
experimental scientist 3
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Franklin suspected that lightning was an electrical current in nature,
and he wanted to test this idea. One way would be to see if the
lightning would pass through metal. In 1752 he conducted his famous
experiment by flying a key on a kite string during an electrical storm.
– He knew lightning was powerful & dangerous & invented the lightning rod
to protect ships & buildings
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In 1743, he observed that northeast storms begin in the southwest
and thought it odd that storms travel in an opposite direction to their
winds. He predicted that a storm's course could be plotted. He later
rode a horse through a storm and chased a whirlwind threequarters of a mile in order to learn more about storms.
Franklin’s political appointments took him often to Europe. On one
such voyage he observed the warm Gulf Stream waters by the
temperature of the wine stored in the ship’s hull. On a subsequent
voyages, he mapped the Gulf Stream and recorded its surface
temperatures and current speeds.
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25, 2002
Two of Nature’s Cooling Influences
 In 1794, Franklin wrote about Europe’s constant ‘dry fog’
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He wrote that it so dissipated the sun's ray's that "when collected in the
focus of a burning glass, they would scarce kindle brown paper.”
Franklin correctly attributed the dry fog to a large Icelandic volcano that
erupted in 1783, and he argued that the reduced solar heating was the
cause of unusual cold in 1783-84.
Franklin discussed the concept of the
climate feedback that would result from
increased snow cover. He understood
brighter surfaces have greater reflectance,
therefore exerting a cooling influence
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25, 2002
Why is the Earth So Warm?
 Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier (1768-1830), French mathematician
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• Became interested in dissipation of heat while
serving Napoleon in Egypt. Proposed that the
Earth’s atmosphere behaves like a “hothouse”
• He misunderstood how a hothouse works, and
assumed that the glass let in the sun's infrared
rays and reflected heat back into the structure
• Experimented on rate of cooling of a uniformly
heated sphere. He approached this by heating a
small polished iron sphere, then allowing it to
cool. He found that varying the method of
heating had little effect, while blackening the
surface would approximately double the cooling
rate.
• Transcending his theories on heat, his
equations became the foundation for climate
modeling today
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25, 2002
Light Scattering & Absorption
 John Tyndall (1820-1893), natural philosopher born in Ireland 6,7
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Credited for founding the science of light scattering or nephelometry. His
instruments are the basis of many instruments that atmospheric scientists use today
such as fluorimeters, turbimeters and ultraviolet spectrometers.
His major research was in the transmission
and absorption of gases, liquids and vapors,
thus laying the basis for infrared spectroscopy.
Investigated radiant heat in1859. He built the
first ratio spectrophotometer to measure the
absorptive powers of gases such as water
vapor, carbon dioxide, ozone and hydrocarbons (many of the greenhouse gases).
Demonstrated that water vapor, carbon
dioxide and ozone are some of the best
absorbers of heat radiation
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Earth’s Absorptive Atmosphere
 John Tyndall
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Concluded water vapor
Is the strongest absorber
of radiant heat and is the
most important gas
controlling the Earth’s
surface air temperature.
Speculated on how
changes in water vapor
and carbon dioxide
could be related to
climate change.
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Earth’s Absorptive Atmosphere
 John Tyndall
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He wrote that without water vapor, Earth’s atmosphere would be “held fast
in the iron grip of frost.”
Tyndall related his studies to the minimum nighttime temperatures and the
formation of dew, correctly noting that dew and frost are caused by a loss of
heat through radiative processes. Even saw London as a “heat island”
warmer than its surroundings due to greater thermal radiation.
Tyndall is credited with the first ever atmospheric pollution measurement
using infrared and scattering measurement instruments to monitor the
atmosphere.
He discovered the Tyndall effect—the diffusion of light by large molecules
and dust. Though he could not explain it theoretically, he first suggested that
the reason the sky is blue is due to the scattering of the suns rays by
molecules in the atmosphere
Tyndall also showed that ozone was an oxygen cluster rather than a
hydrogen compound.
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25, 2002
Measuring Temperatures Remotely
 Samuel Langley (1834-1906), American physicist & engineer 12,13
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Invented the bolometer in 1878 (refined in 1880), which was based on the
principle that electrical resistivity is affected by temperature. Composed of
two thin strips of metal, a Wheatstone bridge, a battery and a galvanometer
(an electrical current measuring device), the bolometer was sensitive to
differences in temperature of one hundred-thousandth of a degree Celsius
(.00001 C).
The Bolometer
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25, 2002
Mapping the Solar Spectrum
 Samuel Langley
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With the bolometer he was able to “map” the infrared portion of the solar
and lunar spectrum with unprecedented accuracy.
With the spectrobolometer, Langley found the highest temperature of the
Moon was about 0°C, and the lowest temperature not far from the
temperature of space
Langley became deeply interested in the problem of variable solar radiation.
He found that the solar constant is variable in 1904. i.e. the sun’s radiation
changes over time. He also studied sunspots and tried to discern their
effects on the Earth
Langley was also a pioneer in aviation
– Did experiments in lift and was the first to explain how birds soar and glide without
appreciable wing movement.
– In 1896 Langley became the first to build heavier-than-air machines capable of
unmanned and uncontrolled, but sustained flight. The first flight went 914 meters
and the second 1280 meters. They used steam engines and had a wingspan of
about 14 feet.
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25, 2002
The First Global Climate Model
 Svante Arrhenius (1859-1927),
Swedish physicst 14
Theorized atmospheric CO2 rising in
atmosphere due to human industry;
predicted doubling CO2 would
increase average global temperature
by ~ 5°C
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25, 2002
Early Weather Forecasting
 Sir Gilbert Walker, British mathematician 8,9
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As head of the Indian Meteorological Service,
was asked in 1904 to predict the vagaries of
India's monsoons after an 1899 famine caused
by monsoon failure
He noticed a seesaw relationship between
atmospheric pressure in the eastern South
Pacific (east of Tahiti) and the Indian Ocean
(west of Darwin, Australia)—that is, if pressure
was high in one region, it was usually low in
the other and vice versa.
In 1928, Walker named this seesaw pattern
the “Southern Oscillation” and began tracking
pressure differences between the two regions.
He found when pressure was very high in the
east and low in the west, the monsoon rains in India were heavy. When
the pressure difference was small, the rains failed and drought often
ensued.
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25, 2002
Early Weather Forecasting
 Sir Gilbert Walker
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His data showed that drought conditions hit not only Australia, Indonesia, and India but
also parts of sub-Saharan Africa, while there would be mild winters in Canada.
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25, 2002
Atmospheric Circulation
 Sir Gilbert Walker
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His research showed that drought conditions hit not only Australia,
Indonesia, and India but also parts of sub-Saharan Africa, and at the same
time there would be mild winters in Canada.
Despite his insight and vision, Walker was unable to identify the physical
processes responsible for the Southern Oscillation, and for the next three
decades numerous factors conspired to dampen further research on the
phenomenon. Chief among them was that from 1930 to 1950 the climate
signals marking the Southern Oscillation and El Niño were much less
pronounced than they had been, and interest in the subject dropped off.
Walker was publicly criticized for suggesting that climatic conditions over
such widely separated regions of the globe could be linked. Walker
conceded that he couldn't prove his theory, but predicted that whatever was
causing the connection in weather patterns would become clear once wind
patterns above ground level, which were not routinely being observed at
that time, were thrown into the equation.
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25, 2002
Numerical Weather Modeling
 Vilhelm Bjerknes (1862-1951), Norwegian physicist & mathematician 10
• His father was a scientist; at the age of 7, young Vilhelm worked with his
father on his experiments in hydrodynamics. These experiences together
with his college degrees led him to begin research on applying
hydrodynamics and thermodynamics to large-scale motions in the
atmosphere and oceans.
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• He was the first to propose what is called today “numerical
weather modeling,” which approached forecasting using a
mathematical technique called the “initial value problem,” where
multiple mathematical equations describing atmospheric
processes are integrated forward in time based on the current or
“initial” state of the atmosphere.
• Due to lack of computational capacity, the calculations he
envisioned were not feasible at that time. Nevertheless, Bjerknes
considered weather forecasting as the principal objective of
meteorological research.
• Bjkernes and his son together installed weather stations all across
Norway, the data from which led to the development of their theory
of Polar fronts. They put forward the theory that weather activity is
concentrated in relatively narrow zones, which form the
boundaries between warm and cold air masses. They called these
zones "fronts," an analogy with the First World War battlefronts.
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Atmospheric Circulation
 Jacob Bjerknes 11
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Bjerknes refered to the oceanic and atmospheric circulation over the tropical
Pacific as a "chain reaction". He wrote "An intensifying Walker Circulation
also provides for an increase of east-west temperature contrast that is the
cause of the Walker Circulation in the first place." Bjerknes also noted that
the interaction could operate in the opposite: a decrease in the equatorial
easterlies diminishes the supply
of upwelling cold water and the
lessened east-west temperature
gradient causes the Walker
Circulation to slow down. He thus
provided an explanation for the
association of the low phase of
the Southern Oscillation with El
Niño as well as the association of
the high phase with normal cold
state of the eastern Pacific.
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25, 2002
Earth’s Orbital Mechanics
 Milutin Milankovitch (1879-1958), Serbian astrophysicist 15,16
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First known for his bridge work, Milankovitch was interned
during WWI and during this time first began to formulate
his theories relating Earth’s motions and long-term climate
change
– A mathematical theory of climate based on the seasonal and
latitudinal variations of solar radiation received by the Earth
– Milankovitch Theory states that as the Earth travels around the
sun, cyclical variations in three elements of Earth-sun geometry
combine to produce variations in the amount of solar energy
that reaches Earth:
(1) Variations in the Earth's
orbital eccentricity—the
shape of the orbit around
the sun.
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Earth’s Orbital Mechanics
 Milutin Milankovitch
(2) Changes in obliquity—changes in
the angle that Earth's axis makes
with the plane of Earth's orbit.
(3) Precession—the change in the
direction of the Earth's axis of
rotation, i.e., the axis of rotation
behaves like the spin axis of a top
that is winding down; hence it traces
a circle on the celestial sphere over
a period of time.
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25, 2002
Earth’s Orbital Mechanics
 Milutin Milankovitch
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Using these three orbital variations, Milankovitch formulated a mathematical
model that calculated latitudinal differences in insolation and the
corresponding surface temperature for 600,000 years prior to the year
1800. He then correlated these changes with the growth and retreat of the
Earth’s Ice Ages.
Though his first monograph on the subject was published in 1920, it was
alternately ignored and refuted for about 50 years. As with many areas of
science, theories predated that observational evidence. It wasn’t until 1976,
when a study published in the journal Science examined deep-sea sediment
cores over 450,000 revealed the relationship.
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20th Century Focus on Carbon Dioxide
 Roger Revelle (1909-1991), U.S. Oceanographer 17,18
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Interested in the air-sea interface and the draw-down of carbon dioxide into the deep
ocean. Searched for the saturation points and rates
In 1957, Revelle and Hans Suess, one of the founders of radiocarbon dating,
demonstrated that carbon dioxide had increased in the air as a result of the use of
fossil fuels in a famous article published in Tellus, a
European meteorology and oceanography journal. Under
Revelle's leadership, the first authoritative U.S. government
report published in which carbon dioxide from fossil fuels was
officially recognized as a potential global problem.
• Revelle chaired the National Academy of Sciences
Energy and Climate Panel in 1977, which found that
about forty percent of the anthropogenic carbon dioxide
has remained in the atmosphere, two-thirds of that from
fossil fuel, and one-third from the clearing of forests.
• Revelle and Suess wrote their seminal paper (3) with the
now legendary phrase "human beings are now carrying
out a large scale geophysical experiment" that so
captured the imagination of large numbers of scientists.
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25, 2002
20th Century Focus on Carbon Dioxide
 Charles David Keeling, U.S. atmospheric chemist
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Began measuring CO2
levels in mid-1950s
Measured 314 ppm in
1958, which he compared
to George Callendar’s
calculation of the 1900
levels of CO2 at 290 ppm
Keeling published his
results in 1959
While the overall trend
continues upward, note
the annual rise and fall,
which illustrates our
world’s biosphere
“inhaling and exhaling”
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Aerial Photography & Photogrammetry
 In 1839, the first ever photos were taken in France by Daguerre 19
and Nepce. By 1840, the French were using photos to produce
topographic maps.
 In 1858, the first aerial photos were taken of Paris by cameras
mounted in a hot air balloon. There are claims that aerial
reconnaissance was used during the American Civil War by hot air
balloon-mounted cameras. (Perhaps, but no images survive
today.)
 In the 1880s, the British flew cameras mounted onto kites.
 In 1903, small cameras were fixed onto carrier pigeons.
 In 1909, Wilbur Wright shot the first photos from an airplane in
flight. In 1915, the British RAF collected aerial reconnaissance
photos during World War I.
 In 1930, the first aerial spectrophotography of the Earth was
collected by Krinov and colleagues in Russia.
 Infrared film first tested in 1931, dramatic advances made in
d a v1940s.
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Space-based Photography
 The first space-based photo taken March 7, 1947
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Taken 100 miles above New Mexico, U.S., while testing captured German
V-2 rockets
This photo was taken by an automatic K-12 camera, using black and white
infrared film, from a Viking sounding rocket that reached a height of 227 km
(141 miles). This scene spans
across parts of New Mexico,
Arizona, Nevada, California, &
northwest Mexico (upper Gulf
of California on the left).
In 1950, scientist Otto Berg
developed film from one of
these tests and pieced together
several photos into a mosaic of
a large tropical storm over
Brownsville, Texas
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Early Space-based Imagery
 Television and Infrared Observational Satellite (TIROS-1) launched
on April 1, 1960
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The first experimental weather satellites began with TIROS-1. The main instrument
was a vidicon, which is a modified television camera that
scanned through 500 lines, each containing 500 pixels.
Shown bottom right are the first images returned from
TIROS-1.
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Early Space-based Imagery
 During Mercury & Apollo programs, Astronauts provided us with
breathtaking & scientifically interesting pictures of our home
planet
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Earth's cloudy surface, as seen by Alan Shepard onboard the Mercury-Redstone 3
(MR-3) spacecraft on May 5, 1961, the first U.S. manned spaceflight
The first Earthrise seen from the
surface of the moon by the first
Apollo Lunar landing mission
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Satellite Remote Sensing: Art &
“Remote sensing” coined by Evelyn Pruitt in mid-1950s
Science
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The term refers to measurement or observation of an object from a distance
using an artificial device without disturbing the intervening medium
 Earth Resources Technology Satellite (ERTS) launched in 1972
(later renamed Landsat-1)
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Idea was born when RCA approached
terrain photographers at NASA GSFC
to use a Return Beam Vidicon (RBV)
camera on an unmanned satellite to
produce high-res imagery for geological & other scientific purposes
The spectacular photography from the
Apollo program largely responsible for
providing the impetus to develop &
launch the first Landsat satellite
Provides a continuous, consistent & high quality 30year data set of Earth’s land surfaces and changes
over time.
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Atmospheric Research Satellites
 The launch of Nimbus-7 in 1978 marked a milestone in providing
space-based sensors for scientific research of Earth’s atmosphere
on a global scale
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This artist’s drawing shows the satellite’s nadir deck containing eight Earth-viewing
sensors, including the first Earth Radiation Budget (ERB) experiment
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Politics, Science & Ozone Depletion
 Mario Molina and Sherwood Rowland
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In 1973, these U. of Cal. researchers published their theory that man-made
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) could damage the Earth's stratospheric ozone
shield.
The theory was controversial, but 2 years later the U.S. Congress asked
NASA to develop a "comprehensive program of research, technology, and
monitoring of phenomena of the upper
atmosphere.”
Ironically, the ozone "hole" over Antarctica
wasn't discovered until May 1985, by J.C.
Farman using a ground-based Dobson
ozone spectrophotometer. He found that
stratospheric ozone over Halley Bay was
about 40 percent less than what had been
measured during the previous winter.
– NASA researchers had detected the hole
too, but were slowed to press by bad
surface validation data
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NASA’s Earth Observing System
 Toward a comprehensive, wholistic
examination of our planet
• Scientists increasingly recognized
the 4 major spheres of the Earth’s
environment all interact in many
simple & complex ways. NASA’s
goal is to understand how these
spheres interact so that we can
construct computer models of the
system, enabling us to predict
future changes.
• As the centerpiece of its Earth
Science Enterprise, NASA’s Earth
Observing System began in the
early 1990s, comprised of:
1. A new generation of satellite sensors
2. A robust new data system (EOSDIS)
3. Multi-disciplinary, multi-national teams
of scientists
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Chemistry of Ozone Formation & Depletion
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Chlorine monoxide (left) and
ozone concentration (right)
derived by MLS at
approximately 18 km altitude on
August 27, 1997, and October
10, 1997, respectively. The
high chlorine monoxide within
the Antarctic polar vortex in the
left-hand figure (green, yellow,
and red) is directly associated
with, and leads to, a reduced
ozone concentration shown in
the right-hand figure (purple).
Chlorine reacts with ozone, forming chlorine monoxide & oxygen. Chlorine monoxide reacts with
oxygen to free up the original chlorine atom to further destroy ozone, setting up a vicious cycle.
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Why is Space-based Remote Sensing
Provides a long-term global perspective on climate Useful?
“teleconnections” we would not otherwise have
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Why is Space-based Remote Sensing
Useful?
Provides the ability to zoom in on surface phenomena,
such as
Natural Hazards, and observe and quantify changes
QuickTime™ and a YUV420 codec dec ompres sor are needed to see this pic ture.
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QuickTime™ and a Sorens on Video dec ompres sor are needed to see this pic ture.
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
Why is Space-based Remote Sensing
Useful?
Space-based remote sensors allow us to observe & quantify
Earth’s environments in regions of the electromagnetic spectrum
to which our eyes are not sensitive
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
Symptoms of Change over the Last 100
Years
Human population has tripled
 Humans have altered 40 percent of the Earth’s land surface
 The rate of biomass burning has quadrupled—we consume an
average of 175 million acres of forest & grassland annually
 Levels of carbon dioxide have risen by 30 percent
 We introduced chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) into the stratosphere
that destroy ozone there
 Global temperatures have risen by ~ 0.5°C - 0.7°C
 About 24 mm more rain will fall in 2000 than in 1900
 Today, 2-3 glaciers disappear every year—Glacier Park may be
renamed “No-Glacier National Park” by 2050
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Come explore your
world in NASA’s
award-winning web
site, at ...
http://earthobservatory.
nasa.gov
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Internet References
[1] http://orca.rsmas.miami.edu/classes/mpo551/mike/ideas.html
[2] http://www.ucar.edu/communications/ucar25/forecasts.html
[3] http://www.english.udel.edu/lemay/franklin/
[4] http://65.107.211.206/science/fourier.html
[5] http://acd.ucar.edu/textbook/ch15/Fourier/Fourier.cite1.html
[6] http://www.tyndall.ac.uk/general/john_tyndall_biography.shtml
[7] http://www.tyndallpublications.com/johntynd.htm
[8] http://www7.nationalacademies.org/opus/El_Nino_and_La_Nina_3.html
[9] http://www.ce.berkeley.edu/~silverman/walker/walker.html
[10] http://www.copernicus.org/EGS/egs_info/bjerknes.htm
[11] http://ess.geology.ufl.edu/usra_esse/ENSO_History.html
[12] http://www.hao.ucar.edu/public/education/sp/images/langley.html
[13] http://www.clpgh.org/exhibit/neighborhoods/northside/nor_n112.html
[14] http://earthobservatory.gsfc.nasa.gov/Library/Arrhenius
[15] http://geography.aboutcom/library/weekly/aa121498.htm?once=true&
[16] http:///www.gi.alaska.edu/ScienceForum/ASF8/825.html
[17] http://scilib.ucs.edu/sio/archives/siohstry/revelle-biog.html
[18] http://www.mbari.org/ghgases/revelle/text.htm
[19] http://rst.gsfc.nasa.gov
[20] http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov
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Recommended Further Reading
Parkinson, C. L., 1985: Breakthroughs: A Chronology of Great Achievements in
Science and Mathematics, G. K. Hall & Company, Boston, 576 pp.
Gurney, R.J., J.L. Foster and C.L. Parkinson, 1993: Atlas of Satellite Observations
Related to Global Change, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Manuel, Diane, 1996: Encyclopedia of Weather and Climate, Oxford
University Press, New York, 315 pp.
Parkinson, C. L., 1997: Earth From Above: Using Color-Coded Satellite Images to
Examine the Global Environment, University Science Books, Sausalito.
Fleming, James Rodger, 1998: Historical Perspectives on Climate Change, Oxford
University Press, Oxford, 194 pp.
Lowman, Paul D.,1999: “Landsat and Apollo: The Forgotten Legacy.”
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