Major Battles and Campaigns
during Spanish South
American Independence
Chapters:
I--Colombia/Venezuela
II--Argentina/Chile
III--Peru
All the highlights you need to know
Colonial Latin America
The Royalists (in Spanish: Realistas) were the American and European supporters of King Ferdinand.
Hispanic Americans and Spaniards formed the Royalist Army, with Hispanic Americans composing 90%
in all fronts. There were two types of units: the Expeditionary, units created in Spain; and the Militias,
created in the Americas. They could be veteran units(Disciplined Militia). Only 11% were white people
(Creole). In 1820, no more Spanish soldiers were sent to the war in the Americas. In 1820 there were
only 9,954 Spanish soldiers in the Americas, and Spaniards formed only 10% of the whole Royalist Army,
and only half of the soldiers of the expeditionary units were European. At the Battle of Ayacucho in 1824,
less than 1% of the soldiers were European.
El Libertador
Simon Bolivar
New Granada
New Granada
Independence was technically claimed in 1810 by
Francisco Miranda,
who fell from power in 1812 after a horrendous
earthquake
New Granada fell back into Civil War, with diff areas of
the region controlled by diff armies.
Young Bolivar, at that time a revolutionary, turned Miranda
over to authorities in order to avoid jail time in a Spanish
prison.
Regrouped with other patriots in Venezuela and begin the
famous Admirable Campaign
Venezuela--the Admirable
Campaign
Venezuela--the Admirable
Campaign
The "Cartagena Manifesto“—unity and the liberation of
Venezuela
Trujillo and the "Decree of War to the Death." In the
Decree Bolivar announced that the patriot army will treat
Spaniards and Criollos differently: "Spaniards and
Canarians, count on death, even if indifferent, if you do
not actively work in favor of the independence of
America. Americans, count on life, even if guilty." The
Decree would remain in force, technically, until 1820.
Bolivar’s forces had a triumphal entrance into the city of
Caracas on 6 August, establishing the Venezuelan
republic.
Venezuela--the Admirable
Campaign
Venezuela--the reverses
Despite the “liberation of
Venezuela,” resistance
continued against the
revolution, this time from the
llanero, and led by Tomas
Boves -- the “horseman
from Hell”
Venezuela--the reverses
Llaneros are the
Venezuelan version of
cowboys. They were
mestizos who had ben
pushed into the
grasslands and had
evolved their own
culture.
Boves had moved to the
llano as a cattle rancher
and became their leader.
Why would they fight
against Bolivar….?
Venezuela--the reverses
Boves scared the hell out of the criollos and was known for
astonishing atrocities against the revolutionaries.
He defeated Bolivar in 1814 at La Puerta, and then retook
Caracas a month later-tho’ he died later that year.
Bolivar was driven out of Venezuela and back to New
Granada, where he spent two years trying to protect New
Granada’s independence against Spanish forces until it fell to
them in 1816.
Venezuela remained loyal to Spain until 1821
Back to New Granada
From 1814-1816, Spain sent an army to gain the
province back.
Internal divisions, prevented an easy unification of
efforts.
The provinces themselves did not give each other
much needed aid.
Many leaders decided to exile themselves, although
others did remain in the region and tried to
reorganize it military and political activities in order to
face the new threat.
Back to New Granada
Due to these internal conflicts, on May 8, 1815, Simon Bolivar left his
command under the United Provinces.
Bolivar turned to Jamaica and later Haiti.
Eventually, the growing exile community would also receive money,
volunteers and weapons from the Haitian president and resumed the
struggle for independence in the remote border areas of both New
Granada and Venezuela, where they established irregular bands with the
locals. This formed the early basis of an independent base from which the
struggle to establish republics spread towards other colonial areas under
Spanish control.
By 1816, the combined efforts of Spanish and colonial forces completed
the reconquest of New Granada, taking Bogota on May 6, 1816. A
permanent war council was set up to judge those found guilty of treason
and rebellion, resulting in the execution of more than a hundred notable
republican personalities.
Cartagena…key to New Granada
New Granada
In 1817, Bolivar decided to set up headquarters in the Orinoco
region, which had not been devastated by war and from which
the Spaniards could not easily oust him.
He engaged the services of several thousand foreign soldiers
and officers, mostly British and Irish,
and established liaison with the revolutionary forces of the
llanos, including one group of Venezuelan llaneros (cowboys)
led by Jose Antonio Paez and another group of New Granadan
exiles led by Francisco de Paula Santander.
In the spring of 1819, he conceived his master plan of attacking
New Granada
Angostura congress—dictatorial powers, racial unity, abolition
of slavery, elite controlled constitutional republic
New Granada
Bolivar's attack on New Granada is considered one of
the most daring in military history, compared by
contemporaries and some historians to Napoleon's
crossing of the Alps in 1800 and Jose San Martin's
Crossing of the Andes in 1817. The route that the small
army of about 2,500 men--including a British legion--took
went from the hot and humid, flood-swept plains of
Venezuela lead through the icy mountain passes of the
Cordillera Oriental.
New Granada
To help you understand how truly gnarly this is, consider
the following:
The Orinoco basin is in the center of the map, the river
labeled in red. Now go from that to the upper left of the map
to get to New Granada. Do that with an army, mostly on foot.
Climb over these on your
way…
These would be the
Andes…
You know, where those
soccer players ate each
other in the ‘70s…
On the route…
New Granada
The mostly llanero army was not prepared and poorly clothed
for the cold and altitude of the mountains, and many became
ill or died. The Spanish considered the route impassable, and
therefore, they were taken by surprise when Bolivar's small
army appeared in New Granada. At the Battle of Boyaca on
August 7, 1819, the bulk of the royalist army surrendered to
Bolivar. On receiving the news, the viceroy, Juan Jose de
Samano, and the rest of royalist government fled the capital
so fast that they left behind the treasury. On August 10
Bolivar's army entered Bogota.
Battle of Boyaca
Bolivar and his subordinate general, Santander, essentially
trapped the royalist army led by a Col. Barreira as it tried to
cross a bridge (La Puente de Boyaca,) and crushed it.
The bridge is now a national site, and Colombian presidents
are trotted out there every four years to celebrate the victory
Battle of Boyaca
Battle of Boyaca
Battle of Boyaca
Battle of Boyaca
Historical consequences and legacy
･The final defeat of Royal forces in the New Kingdom of Granada and the
weakening of the rest of the forces in all America.
･The royalist understand that the patriots were worthy of respect for their
courage and heroism.
･The end of Spanish control over the American provinces, with the escape of
viceroy Juan de Samano.
･The following freedom of all provinces in the New Kingdom.･The creation of
Greater Colombia.
･The start of an autonomous government in the former Spanish provinces.
･The independence of Venezuela, Peru, Ecuador and the creation of Bolivia.
In commemoration of this battle, August 7 is a national holiday in Colombia.
Back to Venezuela
Bolivar's chief preoccupation was to liberate his country
(Venezuela).
“I have created an army far superior to that of the
enemy . . ."
"I have instructed General Paez not to engage the
enemy in any battle unless they are inferior in numbers
and he is certain of destroying them without himself
suffering heavy losses…”
Battle of Carabobo--24
June 1821
The other major battle you need to know to write about
Bolivar.
This is the one that is considered the “Yorktown” of
Venezuela.
Keep in mind, however, the Spanish had withdrawn much of
their army due to problems back in Europe.
Nonetheless, it is a crucial moment both for Latin America
and for Bolivar’s enshrinement as a continental hero.
Battle of Carabobo--24
June 1821
Battle of Carabobo--24
June 1821
The Royalists occupied the road leading from Valencia to Puerto Cabello. As Bolivar's
force of 6,500 approached the Royalist position, Bolivar divided his force and sent half
on a flanking maneuver through rough terrain and dense foliage. Hitting the Patriots with
musket fire, the Royalists held back the attack for a while. Bolivar’s infantry failed and
retreated, but the Irish, Welsh, and English of the "British Legion" fought hard and took
the hills. They sustained about 50% of Bolivar's casualties.
The Patriots eventually broke through the Royalist lines on the flank. All the Royalist
Venezuelan cavalry gave way and fled. The Spanish infantry formed squares and fought
to the end under the attack of the Patriot cavalry. The rout was so bad that only some
400 of one infantry regiment managed to reach safety at Puerto Cabello. With the main
Royalist force in Venezuela crushed, independence was ensured. Subsequent battles
included a key naval victory for the independence forces on 24 July 1823 at the Battle of
Lake Maracaibo and in November 1823 Jose Antonio Paez occupied Puerto Cabello, the
last Royalist stronghold in Venezuela.
The battle was remarkably one-sided. For every Patriot/Rebel death, 14-15
Spanish/Royalists were killed. This appears even more remarkable when one takes into
account that it was fought near the end of the musket era, where frequently the victors
on the battlefield would sustain almost as many casualties, if not more, than those they
defeated.
Bolivar’s
Legacy
Bolivar’s Legacy
Bolivar is also a useful figure for
current Latin American leaders to
compare themselves to.
Hugo Chavez of Venezuela insists
he is not a leftist, but a “Bolivarian”-which to him signifies he will unite
Latin America under his leadership
and against US power.
So, why’s he
hugging this guy,
then?
That’s why he’s donating oil to
other LA nations.
The Viceroyalty of Argentina
(Rio de la plata)
The Viceroyalty’s office
was centered in
Buenos Aires
Argentina
By the nineteenth century Buenos Aires was becoming more self-sufficient, producing about
600,000 cattle a year (of which about one quarter was consumed locally), prompting the
development of the area. But wars with Great Britain meant a great setback for the region's
economy as maritime communications were practically paralyzed. The Alto Peru region started
to show contempt as the expenses of administration and defense of the Rio de la Plata estuary
were mainly supported by the declining Potosi production. For instance, in the first years of the
viceroyalty, around 75% of the expenses were covered with revenues that came from the north.
The Alto Plata (mostly present Paraguay) also had problems with the Buenos Aires
administration, particularly because of the monopoly of its port on embarcations.By 1805, Spain
had to help France because of their 1795 alliance, and had lost its navy in the Battle of
Trafalgar, but the Spanish prime minister had warned the viceroyalty of the likelihood of a
British invasion, and that in such an event the city of Buenos Aires would be on its own.In June
27, 1806 a small British force of around 1,500 men successfully invaded Buenos Aires after a
failed attempt to stop him by viceroy Rafael de Sobremonte, who fled to Cordoba. The British
forces were thrown back by the criollos on December 1806, a militia force under the leadership
of Santiago de Liniers.
Thus, lack of support from Spain and the confidence-boost by the fresh defeat of a world power
prompted a movement towards independence at the expense of the viceroyalty. It was also
clear that the Viceroyalty of the Rio de la Plata was just several unrelated regions bound
together in an attempt by the Spanish crown to maintain its power over the region. As of 1810,
Argentina had been self-governed for about a year and Paraguay had already declared its
independence, and the viceroyalty was effectively dissolved.
Just to confuse you…
the following areas of the viceroyalty of the Rio de la Plata all
declared independence on or
around 1810…
Paraguay…under Dr. Gaspar
Rodriguez Francia, would
remain independent despite
Argentine hopes of keeping it
Uruguay, under Jose Artigas, would
eventually break free of Argentina by
1828
And the other vice-royalty of Chile,
under Bernardo O’Higgins gained
its independence, before
Argentina declared its, but fell
back into the grasp of Spain
Argentina
As you read, the Napoleonic
campaign in Spain in 1810 had
the effect of stimulating a junta
in Buenos Aires to declare
independence from the
Bonaparte regime.
What you really need to know
about is the career of Jose de
San Martin.
Argentina
Jose de San Martin (25 February 1778 - 17 August 1850), was an Argentine
general and the prime leader of the southern part of South America's successful
struggle for independence from Spain. In 1808, after joining the Spanish forces to
fight against the French, San Martin started making contact with South American
supporters of independence. In 1812, he offered his services to the United
Provinces of South America (present-day Argentina).After the Battle of San
Lorenzo in 1813, and some time in command of the Army of the North during
1814, he started his plan to attack Lima. This involved first creating an army in
Cuyo, liberating Chile, and then attacking Lima by sea. In 1817, he crossed the
Andes from Mendoza to Chile, and prevailed over the Spanish forces after the
Battle of Chacabuco and liberated Chile in the Battle of Maipu (1818). San
Martin seized partial control of the viceroyalty's capital (Lima) on July 12, 1821 and
was appointed Protector of Peru. Peruvian independence was officially declared
on July 28, 1821. After his closed-door meeting with fellow libertador Simon
Bolivar at Guayaquil, Ecuador on 22 July 1822, Bolivar took over the task of fully
liberating Peru. San Martin unexpectedly left Peru and resigned the command of
his army, excluding himself from politics and the military, and he moved to France
in 1824.
Together with Simon Bolivar, San Martin is regarded as one of the Liberators of
Spanish South America. He is the national hero of Argentina.
Argentina--the battle of Chacabuco
In 1814, having been
instrumental in the
establishment of a popularly
elected congress in Argentina,
Jose de San Martin began to
consider the problem of driving
the Spanish royalists from
South America. He realized that
the first step would be to drive
them from Chile, and, to this
end, he set about recruiting and
equipping an army. In just
under two years, he had an
army of some 6,000 men with
1,200 horses and 22 cannons,
and, on January 17, 1817, he
set out with this force to cross
the Andes and liberate Chile
Argentina--the battle of Chacabuco
The Army of the Andes (as San Martin's force was called) had suffered heavy losses during the crossing,
losing as much as one-third of its men and more than half of its horses. The Royalist forces had rushed
north to respond to their approach, and a force of about 1,500 under Brigadier Rafael Maroto blocked
San Martin's advance at a valley called Chacabuco, near Santiago. In the face of the disintegration of
the royalist forces, Maroto proposed abandoning the capital and retreating southward, where they could
hold out and obtain resources for a new campaign. Royal Governor Field Marshal Casimiro Marco del
Pont instead ordered Maroto to prepare for battle in Chacabuco.
In order to keep discipline in the face of an attack the royalists knew they couldn’t oppose, Maroto
“proclaimed a general decree on pain of death, to whomever suggested a retreat.”
San Martin received numerous reports of the Spanish attack plans from a spy dressed as a roto, a
poverty-stricken peasant of Chile. On February 11th, three days before his planned date of attack, San
Martin called a war council to decide a plan of attack. Their main goal was to take the Chacabuco
Ranch, the Spanish headquarters, at bottom of the hills. He decided to split his 2,000 troops into two
parts, sending them down two roads on either side of the mountain. The right flank was led by Soler, and
the left flank under O’Higgins. The plan was for Soler to attack their flanks while at the same time
surrounding their rear guard in order to prevent their retreat. San Martin expected that both leaders
attack at once so the Spanish had to fight a two-front battle.
In the actual battle, the two flanks succeeded in forcing the Spanish into a defensive position in a cattle
ranch, where the two Argentine flanks were able to surround them after heroic fighting by Soler and
O’Higgins. Hand-to-hand combat ensued at the ranch until every Spanish soldier was dead or taken
captive. 500 Spanish soldiers were killed and 600 taken captive. The Patriot forces only lost twelve men
in battle, but an additional 120 lost their lives from wounds suffered during the battle.
Argentina--the battle of Chacabuco
Argentina--the battle of Maipu
“The Battle of Maipu in 1818 is an extremely
significant in South American history, for it was one
of the most important battles of the Latin American
struggle for independence. The feats that rebels
achieved in the battle signified their dogged
determination to remain free. The removal of a
powerful, royalist army in Chile secured that
country's sovereignty. The opening of a new land
route to liberate Lima and destroy the Viceroyalty
of Peru was achieved. The battle of Maipu was the
culmination of southern South American
independence, and also secured the sovereignty of
Argentina, as well.”
Argentina--the battle of Maipu
Argentina--the battle of Maipu
“Maipu became a rallying cry for Chilean nationalists
up to the present, and it was a fine example of how
a determined and uncompromising local force could
vanquish a better-equipped, better trained
professional army. San Martin had been granted
control of the Chilean Pacific after Maipu, and this
allowed him to effectively use British vessels, under
Admiral Thomas Cochrane, to supply and transport
his forces during the conquest of Peru. With Maipu
and the subsequent victory at Lima, San Martin had
secured his the destruction of the Viceroyalty of
Peru, which had existed for over 200 years.”
Argentina
A word about
Thomas Cochrane,
the English officer
who helped San
Martin win the
independence of
Peru…
Cochrane
Cochrane became an English hero during the Napoleonic
Wars, in which the French took to calling him “The Sea Wolf”
for his daring tactics. He left England in disgrace, however,
in 1817 due to a stock scandal and took a command in the
Chilean navy at the behest of O’Higgins, where he was
instrumental in not only besieging Spanish seaside forts
despite being outnumbered in very engagement, but also in
ferrying San Martin’s north into Peru after Maipu.
Cochrane later schemed to free Napoleon from exile, just to
do it, but was unsuccessful.
For those of you who watched or read Master and
Commander, Cochrane is the basis of hero Jack Aubrey, as
well as of Horatio Hornblower (an earlier fictional sea-hero.)
Bolivar and San Martin
Meeting in 1822—San Martin bows out of high command
Lima, Peru (capital of vice-royalty of Peru) threatened by
remaining royalist forces in 1823, calls for Bolivar
Bolivar lets the city be retaken briefly before retaking city in
September 1823, to gain absolute authority over creole
factions.
Battling for one year, ending with Ayacucho in 1824