Maps,
Hash Tables,
Skip Lists,
Sets
last Update: Nov 4, 2014
EECS2011: Maps, Hash Tables, Skip Lists, Sets
1
Maps & Dictionaries
last Update: Nov 4, 2014
EECS2011: Maps, Hash Tables, Skip Lists, Sets
2
Maps
• A map models a searchable collection of key-value entries
• The main operations of a map are for searching, inserting,
and deleting entries
• Multiple entries with the same key are not allowed
• Applications:
 address book
 student-record database
 Ordered maps (dictionaries) allow nearest neighbor
queries in addition to the above three (see also Slide 11).
last Update: Nov 4, 2014
EECS2011: Maps, Hash Tables, Skip Lists, Sets
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The Map ADT
get(k):
put(k, v):
remove(k):
entrySet():
keySet():
values():
size()
isEmpty()
last Update: Nov 4, 2014
if the map M has an entry with key k, return its
associated value; else, return null
insert entry (k, v) into the map M; if key k is not
already in M, then return null;
else, return old value associated with k
if the map M has an entry with key k, remove it
from M and return its associated value; else, return null
return an iterable collection of the entries in M
return an iterable collection of the keys in M
return an iterator of the values in M
EECS2011: Maps, Hash Tables, Skip Lists, Sets
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Example
Operation
Output
Map
isEmpty()
put(5,A)
put(7,B)
put(2,C)
put(8,D)
true
null
null
null
null
Ø
(5,A)
(5,A),(7,B)
(5,A),(7,B),(2,C)
(5,A),(7,B),(2,C),(8,D)
put(2,E)
C
(5,A),(7,B),(2,E),(8,D)
get(7)
B
(5,A),(7,B),(2,E),(8,D)
get(4)
null
(5,A),(7,B),(2,E),(8,D)
get(2)
E
(5,A),(7,B),(2,E),(8,D)
size()
4
(5,A),(7,B),(2,E),(8,D)
remove(5)
remove(2)
get(2)
isEmpty()
A
E
null
false
(7,B),(2,E),(8,D)
(7,B),(8,D)
(7,B),(8,D)
(7,B),(8,D)
last Update: Nov 4, 2014
EECS2011: Maps, Hash Tables, Skip Lists, Sets
5
The Java Map Hierarchy
«interface»
Map
(§ 10.1.1)
«interface»
SortedMap
(§ 10.3)
AbstractMap
(§ 10.1.3)
AbstractSortedMap
(§ 10.3)
UnsortedTableMap
(§ 10.1.4)
AbstractHashMap
(§ 10.2.4)
ChainHashMap
(§10.2.4)
last Update: Nov 4, 2014
SortedTableMap
(§ 10.3.1)
ProbeHashMap
(§ 10.2.4)
EECS2011: Maps, Hash Tables, Skip Lists, Sets
TreeMap
(chapter 11)
(additional
subclasses)
6
A Simple List-Based Map
• We can implement a map using an unsorted list
– We store the items of the map in a list S
(based on a doubly linked list), in arbitrary order
nodes/positions
header
9 c
6 c
5 c
trailer
8 c
entries
last Update: Nov 4, 2014
EECS2011: Maps, Hash Tables, Skip Lists, Sets
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The get(k) Algorithm
Algorithm get(k)
B  M.positions() // B is an iterator of the positions in S
while B.hasNext() do
p  B.next() // the next position in B
if p.element().getKey() = k then
return p.element().getValue()
return null // there is no entry with key equal to k
last Update: Nov 4, 2014
EECS2011: Maps, Hash Tables, Skip Lists, Sets
8
The put(k,v) Algorithm
Algorithm put(k,v)
B  M.positions()
While B.hasNext() do
p  B.next()
if p.element().getKey() = k then
t  p.element().getValue()
M.set(p,(k,v))
return t
// return the old value
M.addLast((k,v))
nn+1
// increment variable storing number of entries
return null
// there was no entry with key equal to k
last Update: Nov 4, 2014
EECS2011: Maps, Hash Tables, Skip Lists, Sets
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The remove(k) Algorithm
Algorithm remove(k)
B  M.positions()
While B.hasNext() do
p  B.next()
if p.element().getKey() = k then
t  p.element().getValue()
M.remove(p)
nn–1
// decrement number of entries
return t
// return the removed value
return null
// there is no entry with key equal to k
last Update: Nov 4, 2014
EECS2011: Maps, Hash Tables, Skip Lists, Sets
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Performance of a List-Based Map
• Performance:
– put, get and remove take O(n) time since in the worst case we
traverse the entire sequence to look for an item with the given key
• The unsorted list implementation is effective only for maps
of small size or for maps in which puts are the most common
operations, while searches and removals are rarely
performed (e.g., historical record of logins to a workstation)
last Update: Nov 4, 2014
EECS2011: Maps, Hash Tables, Skip Lists, Sets
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Hash Tables
0
1
2
3
4
last Update: Nov 4, 2014

025-612-0001
981-101-0002

451-229-0004
EECS2011: Maps, Hash Tables, Skip Lists, Sets
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Recall the Map ADT
get(k):
put(k, v):
remove(k):
entrySet():
keySet():
values():
size()
isEmpty()
last Update: Nov 4, 2014
if the map M has an entry with key k, return its
associated value; else, return null
insert entry (k, v) into the map M;
if key k is not already in M, then return null;
else, return old value associated with k
if the map M has an entry with key k, remove it
from M and return its associated value; else, return null
return an iterable collection of the entries in M
return an iterable collection of the keys in M
return an iterator of the values in M
EECS2011: Maps, Hash Tables, Skip Lists, Sets
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Intuitive Notion of a Map
• Intuitively, a map M supports the abstraction of
using keys as indices with a syntax such as M[k].
• As a mental warm-up, consider a restricted
setting in which a map with n items uses keys
that are known to be integers in a range
from 0 to N − 1, for some N ≥ n.
last Update: Nov 4, 2014
EECS2011: Maps, Hash Tables, Skip Lists, Sets
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More General Kinds of Keys
• But what should we do if our keys are not integers in
the range from 0 to N – 1?
– Use a hash function to map general keys to corresponding
indices in a table.
– For instance, the last four digits of a Social Security number.
0
1
2
3
4

025-612-0001
981-101-0002

451-229-0004
…
last Update: Nov 4, 2014
EECS2011: Maps, Hash Tables, Skip Lists, Sets
15
Hash Functions &
Hash Tables
• A hash function h maps keys of a given type to
integers in a fixed interval [0, N - 1]
• Example: h(k) = k mod N
is a hash function for integer keys
• The integer h(k) is called the hash value of key k
• A hash table for a given key type consists of
– Hash function h
– Array (called table) of size N
• When implementing a map with a hash table,
the goal is to store item (k, v) at index i = h(k)
last Update: Nov 4, 2014
EECS2011: Maps, Hash Tables, Skip Lists, Sets
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Example
last Update: Nov 4, 2014

025-612-0001
981-101-0002

451-229-0004
…
• We design a hash table for a map
0
1
storing entries as
2
(key, value)  (SIN, Name),
3
where SIN (social insurance number)
4
is a ten-digit positive integer
• Our hash table uses an array of size
N = 10,000 and the hash function 9997
9998
h(k) = last four digits of k
9999

200-751-9998

EECS2011: Maps, Hash Tables, Skip Lists, Sets
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Hash Functions
• The hash code is applied
• A hash function is usually
first, and the compression
composed of two functions:
Hash code:
h1: keys  integers
Compression function:
h2: integers  [0, N - 1]
last Update: Nov 4, 2014
function is applied next on
the result, i.e.,
h(x) = h2(h1(x))
• The goal of the hash
function is to “disperse”
the keys in an apparently
random way
EECS2011: Maps, Hash Tables, Skip Lists, Sets
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Hash Codes
• Memory address:
 We reinterpret the memory
address of the key object as an
integer (default hash code of all
Java objects)
 Good in general, except for
numeric and string keys
• Integer cast:
 We reinterpret the bits of the
key as an integer
 Suitable for keys of length less
than or equal to the number of
bits of the integer type (e.g.,
byte, short, int and float in Java)
last Update: Nov 4, 2014
• Component sum:
 We partition the bits of the
key into components of fixed
length (e.g., 16 or 32 bits) and
we sum the components
(ignoring overflows)
 Suitable for numeric keys of
fixed length greater than or
equal to the number of bits of
the integer type (e.g., long
and double in Java)
EECS2011: Maps, Hash Tables, Skip Lists, Sets
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Hash Codes (cont.)
• Polynomial accumulation:
 We partition the bits of the key into a
sequence of components of fixed
length (e.g., 8, 16 or 32 bits)
a0 a1 … an-1
 We evaluate the polynomial
p(z) = a0 + a1 z + a2 z2 + … + an-1zn-1
at a fixed value z, ignoring overflows
 Especially suitable for strings
(e.g., the choice z = 33 gives < 6
collisions on a set of 50,000 English
words)
last Update: Nov 4, 2014
/**
* Polynomial p(z) can be
* evaluated in O(n) time by
* Horner’s rule:
**/
p  0;
for (int i = n-1; i >= 0 ; i--)
p  ai + z∗p;
return p;
EECS2011: Maps, Hash Tables, Skip Lists, Sets
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Compression Functions
• Division:
• MAD: Multiply, Add & Divide:
 h2 (y) = y mod N
 The size N of the hash
table is usually chosen to
be a prime
 The reason has to do
with number theory and
is beyond the scope of
this course
last Update: Nov 4, 2014
 h2 (y) = (ay + b) mod N
 a and b are nonnegative
integers such that
a mod N  0
Otherwise, every integer
would map to the same
value b
EECS2011: Maps, Hash Tables, Skip Lists, Sets
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Abstract Hash Map in Java
last Update: Nov 4, 2014
EECS2011: Maps, Hash Tables, Skip Lists, Sets
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Abstract Hash Map in Java, 2
last Update: Nov 4, 2014
EECS2011: Maps, Hash Tables, Skip Lists, Sets
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Collision Handling
• Collisions occur when
different elements are
mapped to the same cell
0
1
2
3
4

025-612-0001


451-229-0004
981-101-0004
• Separate Chaining:
– let each cell in the table point to a linked list of entries
that map there
– Separate chaining is simple, but requires additional
memory outside the table
last Update: Nov 4, 2014
EECS2011: Maps, Hash Tables, Skip Lists, Sets
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Map with Separate Chaining
Delegate operations to a list-based map at each cell:
Algorithm get(k)
return A[h(k)].get(k)
Algorithm put(k,v)
t  A[h(k)].put(k,v)
if t = null then // k is a new key
nn+1
return t
Algorithm remove(k)
t  A[h(k)].remove(k)
if t ≠ null then // k was found
nn-1
return t
last Update: Nov 4, 2014
EECS2011: Maps, Hash Tables, Skip Lists, Sets
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Hash Table with Chaining
last Update: Nov 4, 2014
EECS2011: Maps, Hash Tables, Skip Lists, Sets
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Hash Table with Chaining, 2
last Update: Nov 4, 2014
EECS2011: Maps, Hash Tables, Skip Lists, Sets
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Open Addressing:
Linear Probing
• Open addressing: the colliding
item is placed in a different cell of
the table
• Linear probing: handles collisions
by placing the colliding item in the
next (circularly) available table cell
• Each table cell inspected is
referred to as a “probe”
• Colliding items lump together,
causing future collisions to cause a
longer sequence of probes
last Update: Nov 4, 2014
• Example:
– h(x) = x mod 13
– Insert keys 18, 41, 22, 44,
59, 32, 31, 73,
in that order
41
18 44 59 32 22 31 73
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
EECS2011: Maps, Hash Tables, Skip Lists, Sets
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Search with Linear Probing
• Consider a hash table A that
uses linear probing
• get(k)
– We start at cell h(k)
– We probe consecutive locations
until one of the following occurs
• An item with key k is found, or
• An empty cell is found, or
• N cells have been unsuccessfully
probed
last Update: Nov 4, 2014
Algorithm get(k)
i  h(k)
p0
repeat
c  A[i]
if c =  return null
else if c.getKey() = k
return c.getValue()
else
i  (i + 1) mod N
pp+1
until p = N
return null
EECS2011: Maps, Hash Tables, Skip Lists, Sets
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Updates with Linear Probing
• put(k, v)
• To handle insertions and
deletions, we introduce a special
 throw an exception if the
object, called DEFUNCT, which
table is full
replaces deleted elements
 start at cell h(k)
• remove(k)
 probe consecutive cells
 search for an entry with key k
until one of the following
 If such an entry (k, v) is found,
occurs
replace it with the special item
DEFUNCT and return element v
Else, return null
 A cell i is found that is
either empty or stores
DEFUNCT, or
 N cells have been
unsuccessfully probed
 store (k, v) in cell i
last Update: Nov 4, 2014
EECS2011: Maps, Hash Tables, Skip Lists, Sets
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Probe Hash Map in Java
last Update: Nov 4, 2014
EECS2011: Maps, Hash Tables, Skip Lists, Sets
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Probe Hash Map in Java, 2
last Update: Nov 4, 2014
EECS2011: Maps, Hash Tables, Skip Lists, Sets
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Probe Hash Map in Java, 3
last Update: Nov 4, 2014
EECS2011: Maps, Hash Tables, Skip Lists, Sets
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Open Addressing:
Double Hashing
• Double hashing uses a
secondary hash function d(k)
and handles collisions by
placing an item in the first
available cell of the series
(i + jd(k)) mod N
for j = 0, 1, … , N – 1
• The secondary hash function
d(k) cannot have zero values
• The table size N must be a
prime to allow probing of all
the cells
last Update: Nov 4, 2014
• Common choice of
secondary hash function:
d(k) = q - k mod q
where
– q<N
– q is a prime
• possible values for d(k) are
{1, 2, … , q}
EECS2011: Maps, Hash Tables, Skip Lists, Sets
34
Example of Double Hashing
• Consider a hash table
storing integer keys
that handles collision
with double hashing
– N = 13
– h(k) = k mod 13
– d(k) = 7 - k mod 7
• Insert keys 18, 41, 22,
44, 59, 32, 31, 73,
in that order
last Update: Nov 4, 2014
k
18
41
22
44
59
32
31
73
h (k ) d (k ) Probes
5
2
9
5
7
6
5
8
3
1
6
5
4
3
4
4
5
2
9
5
7
6
5
8
10
9
0
31
41
18 32 59 73 22 44
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
EECS2011: Maps, Hash Tables, Skip Lists, Sets
35
Performance of
Hashing
• O(n) worst case running time for
search, insert, and remove
e.g., when all inserted keys collide
• The load factor 𝑎 = 𝑛/𝑁
affects the performance
• With open addressing, assuming
the hash values are random:
expected number of probes
1
𝑗−1
=
𝑗𝑎
1−𝑎 =
.
1−𝑎
• O(1) expected running time of
all the dictionary operations
• In practice, hashing is very fast
provided the load factor is not
close to 100%
• Applications of hash tables:
– small databases
– compilers
– browser caches
𝑗≥1
last Update: Nov 4, 2014
EECS2011: Maps, Hash Tables, Skip Lists, Sets
36
Summary
• Hash tables
• Hash function =
hash code +
compression function
• Hash codes:
• Collision handling:
– Separate chaining
– Open addressing:
• Linear probing
• Double hashing
– Java default
memory address
• Performance of hashing
– Key integer cast
– Worst-case
– Component sum
– Expected case
– Polynomial accumulation
– ...
last Update: Nov 4, 2014
EECS2011: Maps, Hash Tables, Skip Lists, Sets
37
Skip Lists
S3 -
S2 -
15
S1 -
15
23
15
23
S0 -
last Update: Nov 4, 2014
+
10
+
+
36
+
EECS2011: Maps, Hash Tables, Skip Lists, Sets
38
What is a Skip List
• A skip list for a set S of distinct (key, value) items is a series
of lists S0, S1 , … , Sh such that
– Each list Si contains the special keys - and +
– List S0 contains the keys of S in non-decreasing order
– Each list is a subsequence of the previous one, i.e.,
S0  S1  …  Sh
– List Sh contains only the two special keys
• We show how to use a skip list to implement the map ADT
S3
-
S2
-
S1
-
S0
-
+
+
31
23
12
last Update: Nov 4, 2014
23
26
31
34
31
34
+
64
44
56
EECS2011: Maps, Hash Tables, Skip Lists, Sets
64
78
+
39
Search
• We search for a key x in a skip list as follows:
– We start at the first position of the top list
– At the current position p, we compare x with y  key(next(p))
x = y: we return element(next(p))
x > y: we “scan forward”
x < y: we “drop down”
– If we try to drop down past the bottom list, we return null
Example: search for 78
S3
-
S2
-
S1
-
S0
-
+
scan forward
+
31
drop down
23
12
last Update: Nov 4, 2014
23
26
31
34
31
34
+
64
44
56
EECS2011: Maps, Hash Tables, Skip Lists, Sets
64
78
+
40
Randomized Algorithms
• A randomized algorithm performs
coin tosses (i.e., uses random bits)
to control its execution
• It contains statements of the type
b  random()
if b = 0
do A …
else // b = 1
do B …
// b  {0, 1}
• The worst-case running time of a
randomized algorithm is often
large but has very low probability
(e.g., it occurs when all the coin
tosses give “heads”)
• Its running time depends on the
outcomes of the coin tosses
last Update: Nov 4, 2014
• We analyze the expected running
time of a randomized algorithm
under the following assumptions
– coins are unbiased, and
– coin tosses are independent
• We use a randomized algorithm
to insert items into a skip list
EECS2011: Maps, Hash Tables, Skip Lists, Sets
41
Insertion
• To insert an entry (k, v) into a skip list, we use a randomized
algorithm:
– We repeatedly toss a coin until we get tails, and we denote with i the
number of times the coin came up heads
– If i  h, we add to the skip list new lists Sh+1, … , Si +1, each containing
only the two special keys
– We search for k in the skip list and find the positions p0, p1 , …, pi of
the items with largest key less than k in each list S0, S1, … , Si
– For j  0 .. i, we insert item (k, v) into list Sj after position pj
Example: insert key 15, with i = 2
p2
S2 -
p1
S1 -
S0 -
S3 -
23
p0
10
last Update: Nov 4, 2014
23
36
+
+
S2 -
15
+
S1 -
15
23
+
S0 -
15
23
10
EECS2011: Maps, Hash Tables, Skip Lists, Sets
+
+
36
+
42
Deletion
• To remove an entry with key k from a skip list, we do:
– We search for k in the skip list and find the positions p0, p1 , …, pi
of the items with key k, where position pj is in list Sj
– We remove positions p0, p1 , …, pi from the lists S0, S1, … , Si
– We remove all but one list containing only the two special keys
Example: remove key 34
S3 -
+
p2
S2 -
34
p1
S1 -
S0 -
23
34
p0
12
last Update: Nov 4, 2014
23
34
45
+
S2 -
+
S1 -
+
S0 -
EECS2011: Maps, Hash Tables, Skip Lists, Sets
+
+
23
12
23
45
+
43
Implementation
• We can implement a skip list with quad-nodes
• A quad-node stores:
–
–
–
–
–
quad-node
entry
link to the node prev
link to the node next
link to the node below
link to the node above
x
• We also define special keys PLUS_INF and MINUS_INF,
and we modify the key comparator to handle them
last Update: Nov 4, 2014
EECS2011: Maps, Hash Tables, Skip Lists, Sets
44
Space Usage
• The space used by a skip list
depends on the random bits
used by each invocation of
the insertion algorithm
• We use the following two
basic probabilistic facts:
Fact 1: The probability of getting i
consecutive heads when
flipping a coin is 1/2i
Fact 2: If each of n entries is
present in a set with
probability p, the expected
size of the set is np
last Update: Nov 4, 2014
• Consider a skip list with n entries
– By Fact 1, we insert an entry
in list Si with probability 1/2i
– By Fact 2, the expected size
of list Si is n/2i
• The expected number of nodes
used by the skip list is
ℎ
𝑖=0
𝑛
= 𝑛
2𝑖
ℎ
𝑖=0
1
< 2𝑛
2𝑖
 the expected space usage of a
skip list with n items is O(n)
EECS2011: Maps, Hash Tables, Skip Lists, Sets
45
Height
• The running time of the search an • Consider a skip list with n enteries
insertion algorithms is affected by
– By Fact 1, we insert an entry in list Si
with probability 1/2i
the height h of the skip list
– By Fact 3, the probability that list Si
• We show that with high probability,
has at least one item is at most n/2i
a skip list with n items has height
O(log n)
• By picking i = 3log n, we have that
the probability that S3log n has at
• We use the following additional
least one entry is at most
probabilistic fact:
Fact 3: If each of n events has
probability p, the probability
that at least one of those n
events occurs is at most np
last Update: Nov 4, 2014
n/23log n = n/n3 = 1/n2
 the height of a skip list with n
entries is at most 3log n
with probability at least 1 - 1/n2
EECS2011: Maps, Hash Tables, Skip Lists, Sets
46
Search and Update Times
• The search time in a skip list is
proportional to
– number of drop-down steps, plus
– number of scan-forward steps
• drop-down steps are bounded by
the height of the skip list and thus
are O(log n) with high probability
• To analyze the scan-forward steps,
we use yet another probabilistic
fact:
Fact 4: The expected number of coin
tosses required in order to get tails is 2
last Update: Nov 4, 2014
• When we scan forward in a list, the
destination key does not belong to
a higher list
– A scan-forward step is associated
with a former coin toss that gave
tails
• By Fact 4, in each list the expected
number of scan-forward steps is 2
• Thus, the expected number of scanforward steps is O(log n)
 in a skip list, the expected time for
a search, insert, or delete is O(log n).
EECS2011: Maps, Hash Tables, Skip Lists, Sets
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Summary
• A skip list is a data structure for maps
• It uses a randomized insertion algorithm
• In a skip list with n entries:
– expected space is O(n)
– expected time for search, insert and delete is O(log n)
•
Using a more complex probabilistic analysis, one can show
that these performance bounds hold with high probability
• Skip lists are fast and simple to implement in practice
last Update: Nov 4, 2014
EECS2011: Maps, Hash Tables, Skip Lists, Sets
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Sets, Multisets, &
Multimaps
last Update: Nov 4, 2014
EECS2011: Maps, Hash Tables, Skip Lists, Sets
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Definitions
• A set is an unordered collection of elements, without duplicates,
that typically supports efficient membership tests.
– Elements of a set are like keys of a map, but without any auxiliary values.
• A multiset (aka, bag) is a set-like container that allows duplicates.
• A multimap is similar to a traditional map, in that it associates
values with keys; however, in a multimap the same key can be
mapped to multiple values.
– For example, the index of a book maps a given term to one or more
locations at which the term occurs.
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Set ADT
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Storing a Set in a List
• We can implement a set with a list
• Elements are stored sorted according to some canonical
ordering
• The space used is O(n)
Nodes storing set elements in order

List
Set elements
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Generic Merging
Algorithm genericMerge(A, B)
• Generalized merge of
S  empty sequence
two sorted lists A and B
while  A.isEmpty()   B.isEmpty()
• Template method
a  A.first().element(); b  B.first().element()
genericMerge
if a < b
• Auxiliary methods
aIsLess(a, S); A.remove(A.first())
– aIsLess
– bIsLess
– bothAreEqual
• Runs in O(nA + nB) time
provided the auxiliary
methods run in O(1)
time
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else if b < a
bIsLess(b, S); B.remove(B.first())
else // b = a
bothAreEqual(a, b, S)
A.remove(A.first()); B.remove(B.first())
while  A.isEmpty()
aIsLess(a, S); A.remove(A.first())
while  B.isEmpty()
bIsLess(b, S); B.remove(B.first())
return S
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Using Generic Merge for
Set Operations
• Any of the set operations can be implemented
using a generic merge
• For example:
intersection: only copy elements that are
duplicated in both lists
union: copy every element from both lists except for
the duplicates
• All methods run in linear time
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Multimap
• A multimap is similar to a map, except that it
can store multiple entries with the same key
• We can implement a multimap M by means of
a map M’
– For every key k in M, let E(k) be the list of entries
of M with key k
– The entries of M’ are the pairs (k, E(k))
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Mulitmaps
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Java Implementation
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Java Implementation, 2
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Java Implementation, 3
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Summary
• Sets, multisets, and multimaps
• Implementation
– linked list
– hash table
– skip list
• Generic merge
• Set operations using generic merge
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