Chapter 11
Leadership
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11-1
Learning Objectives
Define leadership
 Understand the relationship between
culture and leadership
 Discuss the theory of leader legitimacy
and its practical importance
 Describe typical leadership patterns in
different cultures
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Learning Objectives
Understand the implications of Project
GLOBE for cross-cultural leadership
 Identify issues that affect women
becoming leaders in various cultures
 Consider ways that leadership is
becoming more similar or different
because of changes in organizations
worldwide
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Leadership
The influential increment over
and above mechanical
compliance with routine
directives of the organization
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Culture and Leadership
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National culture
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Influences leadership
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Complex relationship between
national cultural values and actual
behavior in organizations
Political culture

Values of national political system
affect organizational leadership
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Culture and Leadership

Organizational culture

Leaders can create, maintain, and
change organizational culture
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Culture places constraints on leaders
and shapes their behavior.
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Leadership Theories
U.S. theories may not have global
application
 Theory X and Y
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Leadership and management styles
vary according to assumptions
about human nature
Ambivalent Leadership
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Produced by a culture with
contradictory norms and values
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Cultural Assumptions of
Leaders About Workers
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Labor relations reflect key assumptions
about human nature
Europe
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Labor relations political
Based on greater social class distinctions
between workers and management or
ownership than in U.S.
Government takes more direct role in
regulating labor and management and in
responsibility for worker social security
concerns
Because of long history of unions, higher
degree of acceptance and integration of
them into the economy than in the U. S.
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Cultural Assumptions of
Leaders About Workers
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Japan
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South America
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Firm organizes and usually controls
union
Unions responsible in negotiations, abide
by their contracts, strikes quite rare
Close relationship between unions and
government
Many rights and benefits for workers
codified in law
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PM Leadership Theory
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Developed in Japan
P - performance function
M - maintenance function
Effective leader emphasizes both
functions
Leadership functions in different ways
from situation to situation
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Elements of culture in which leadership
takes place
Specific contexts within a culture
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NT Leadership Theory
Developed in India
 Two dimensions of effective leader
behavior

Nurturance (N)
 Task (T)
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Preferred leadership style provides
Nurturant and Task behaviors
simultaneously
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Differences in Leadership
Theories
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Western social and positivist social
science methods influenced the
development of PM Theory
Focus on two characteristics of leader
behavior in the PM and NT theories
similar to focus on task and
maintenance functions found in U.S.
leadership theories
Difference between the PM and NT
leadership theories and those developed
in U.S. is cultural context conceptualized
as part of theories
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Social Bases of Leader
Legitimacy
Weber’s Theory of Leadership
 Traditional authority
Characteristic

Rational authority
Underpins

of Asian societies
bureaucratic organizations
Charismatic authority
Can
erupt in all societies
Most appropriate type for leaders in
developing countries
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Leadership and Ethics

Leaders set moral and ethical
standards for organization

Rational authority less ethical
obligation than traditional and
charismatic authority, but
leadership based on rational
authority still has legal and ethical
requirements to meet
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Transformational Leadership
Acts as teacher, role model, and
inspirational figure to create
conditions under which
subordinates enthusiastically
contribute to organization
 Focus on non-routine aspects of
organization
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Leadership and Meaning
Leaders create symbolic meaning
systems
 Leaders interpret and shape larger
culture to needs of organization
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Overseas Chinese
Leadership
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Legitimacy of leader derives from
patrimonial loyalty
Variation in Mainland Chinese leadership
ranges from managerial practices based
on traditional values, continuation of key
elements of communist industrial
system, and modern capitalist
management
Overseas Chinese leadership style
continues tradition of patriarchy
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French Administrative
Leadership
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Unequal distribution of power and
centralized decision making
Consistent with bureaucratic rationality
French organizations have more levels
of hierarchy, more lateral segmentation
into departments and work groups
Many French companies paternalistic,
hierarchical, but French multinational
corporations increasingly decentralizing
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Project GLOBE
Major long-term multi-phase, multimethod research project to study
cross-cultural leadership
differences and similarities among
countries
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Global Leader Behavior
Dimensions
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Transformational-charismatic
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Team-oriented
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Integrator, diplomatic, benevolent,
collaborative attitude about team
Self-protective
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Decisive, performance-oriented, a
visionary, an inspiration to subordinates,
willing to sacrifice for the organization
Self-centered, status conscious,
conflictual, procedural, a face saver
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Global Leader Behavior
Dimensions
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Participative
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Humane
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Modest, compassionate
Autonomous
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Delegator, encourages subordinate
participation in decisions
Individualistic, independent,
autonomous, unique
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GLOBE Cultural Dimensions
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Uncertainty avoidance
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Power distance
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Extent to which members of an
organization or society strive to avoid
uncertainty by reliance on social norms,
rituals, and bureaucratic practices to
alleviate the unpredictability of future
events
Degree to which members of an
organization or society expect and agree
that power should be unequally shared
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GLOBE Cultural Dimensions
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Societal collectivism
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In-group collectivism
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Degree to which organizational and
societal institutional practices encourage
and reward collective distribution of
resources and collective action
Degree to which individuals express
pride, loyalty, and cohesiveness in their
organizations or families
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GLOBE Cultural Dimensions
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Gender egalitarianism
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Assertiveness
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Extent to which an organization or
a society minimizes gender role
differences and gender
discrimination
Degree to which individuals are
assertive, confrontational, and
aggressive in social relationships
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GLOBE Cultural Dimensions
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Future orientation
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Performance orientation
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Degree to which individuals engage in
future-oriented behaviors such as planning,
investing in the future, and delaying
gratification
Extent to which an organization or society
encourages and rewards performance
improvement and excellence
Humane orientation

Degree to which individuals encourage and
reward others for being fair, altruistic,
friendly, generous, caring, and kind
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The Meaning of Project
GLOBE Findings
Because each culture varies, actual
leadership and leadership
preferences of each culture vary
 Approach to leadership based on
cultural values and differences in
leader behavior should inform
global manager's selection of
leaders for specific international
assignments
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The Meaning of Project
GLOBE Findings
International managers should
interact with managers from
another culture in ways that
correspond with preferred
leadership style in that country
 Strong and universal endorsement
of charismatic-transformational
leadership
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Women as Leaders
In many parts of the world,
women occupy secondary role
compared to men, particularly in
leadership positions in
organizations
 Participation of women in
managerial positions worldwide is
likely to increase as
modernization and globalization
progress
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11-28
Convergence or Divergence?
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Most countries
have preference
for charismatic
and
transformational
leadership
Global
corporations can
change leadership
in other countries

Resistance of
national cultures
to new styles of
leadership
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Implications for Managers
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© 2005 Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Understanding leadership important
since all managers perform leadership
functions
Need to assess other cultures to
understand what can be changed and
what is immutable
Charismatic or transformational
leadership styles appropriate for large
organizational change efforts
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