Part Four
Composition/ Essay Writing
Unit 1 The Basic Structure of an Essay

A title should undertake the following tasks:

Three main parts of a standard composition
 1.1 Introduction
 Three main roles of a well –written opening paragraph of a
composition:
 To indicate the subject,
 To state or strongly imply the thesis,
 And to catch the reader’s interest.
 There are different ways to write an effective opening, or a head-in,
of a composition. The following are some examples for a good lead-in:
 (1) With A Quotation
 (2) With An Analogy or Contrast
 (3) With A Question
 (4) With A Factual Statement or Point of View
 (5) With A Definition
 (6) With Relevant Examples
 (7) With A Statement of A Problem or A Popular Misconception
 (8) With A Personal Experience
 1.2 The Body
 The developing part refers to the body paragraphs of the composition.
This part reveals the substance and shape of your thinking. It
specifies the main points of your discussion and supports the thesis
of the whole composition. Most of the body paragraphs, especially in
expositive writing, require a topic statement. The topic statement of
each paragraph, together with its supporting detail, always points to
the thesis of the whole composition. In writing the body we should
also bear in mind that every paragraph must have adequate
development, unity, and coherence.
 1.3 Conclusion
 The ending of your essay is the last chance to clarify and emphasize
your main point. It does not necessarily require a whole paragraph by
itself. For a short composition, the last supporting paragraph, even
the last sentence of that paragraph, may serve as the end, so long as
it can give the reader a feeling of completeness. A longer
composition may require a concluding paragraph that summarizes
the main points, unless the points are arranged in a climactic order
and the last point ---- the most important one ---- is good enough to be
the end.
 Unlike a concluding sentence, which may be a very long one
restating the topic or summing up the main points discussed, a
concluding paragraph is always short and forceful. A summary which
simply repeats the points just made is usually a weak way to end,
though it is better than no conclusion at all. A concluding paragraph
should be briefer than introductory paragraph, with two to three
sentences at most. Thus, summing up points or repeating the thesis
in different words may seem good enough, as a single final sentence
of the last supporting paragraph, or as a separate short paragraph:

… In conclusion, the Ryan twins, the elderly nursing home patient,
and the recuperating heart patient lend credibility to the theory that
pets make important psychological contributions to human health.

…
 Thus scientists still cannot give a definite answer to the age-old
question about the origins of races. But their studies of the various
races have made it clear that man’s environment influenced his
evolution.
 For a longer essay, it is often more effective to conclude with a
paragraph referring to the attention sentence used in the
introductory paragraph. This leaves the reader with a sense of
completeness. Thus, if you used a direct quotation in the opening
sentence, you might refer to it or its author in the conclusion; if you
used an autobiographical incident, you might refer to it just as well:
 … Although I have had no indication that the prejudice against me
because of my profession will cease, I, like Dr. King, “still have a
dream”. I dream of the day that people will judge me by my actions
and not by their stereotypes of English teachers.
 Finally you may want to choose from any of the following
forms for a good ending.
 (1) With An Emphatic Summary
 (2) With An Anecdote
 (3) With A Dramatic Narrative
 (4) With A Quotation
 (5) With A Figurative Language
 (6) With A Prophecy or A Warning Based on The Thesis




1.4 The Types of Writing
Before you write the first draft of a composition, you have to do some
prewriting work, such as choosing the subject and the title, gathering
necessary information, deciding the thesis statement, writing a workable
outline. But in addition to that, you must also think carefully how to present
the material most properly and effectively. You have to think about what you
are going to do with your thesis statement. Do you expect to provide a
factual explanation, or to prove something? Or just giving an account of a
story, or telling the reader what the scenic spot you have just visited looks
like? With different objectives, you have to choose different types of writing
to achieve the relevant purpose.
There are generally four types of writing: description, narration, exposition,
and argumentation.
In fact, the development of a composition varies according to its writer’s
purpose---to narrate, to describe, or to explain, and in the writing of a fulllength composition, the purpose of explaining the thesis is very often to be
achieved by a combination of narrative and descriptive details. Narration and
description can give eyes, ears, and a touch of everyday reality to essays in
which the purpose is to explain or to persuade.
 Below are the samples of the four types of writing:
 Sample One: Narration
 Sample two: Description
 Sample three: Exposition
 Sample four: Argumentation
UNIT TWO THE STEPS OF WRITING AN ESSAY
 2.1 SELECTING A TOPIC

TV programs

︳

TV programs for children

︳

Some TV programs will only do harm to children
In fact, even a limited subject can be further narrowed down until you get a more focused topic:
An unforgettable memory
︳
An unforgettable memory of my school days
︳
An unforgettable memory of my high school days
︳
An unforgettable memory of my high school English teacher
2.2 PLANNING AN ESSAY
(1) Discovering useful material
Entertaining
arguments over what to watch
Too many advertisements
too much time spent watching
Provide relaxation
create passivity
Love stories
not enough sports programs
Children’s cartoons
bring people together
Educational
also isolate people
Discourage communication
soothe people’s pressure/anxiety
Lots of violence
informative
Not very realistic
waste of time
Some are dull and meaningless make people lazy
Football matches
cable TV programs
 (2) Deciding on the thesis


The Benefits of Television
We hear a lot of negative effects of television on the viewer.
Obviously, television can be harmful if it is watched to the exclusion
of other activities. It would be just as harmful to listen to records or
to eat constantly. However, when television is watched in moderation,
it is extremely valuable, as it provides relaxation, entertainment, and
education.
 Nuclear power is an ideal energy source for the human kind.
 (Too broad for a composition of three or four pages.)

The traffic accident caused two deaths and five injuries.
 (Too narrow. Hardly anything more can be added.)

 Students should be encouraged to do part-time jobs during vacation;
though some of the part-time jobs are not fit for young college
students.
 (The thesis statement has two different ideas. It is not clear which is
the main point. )

 My brother taught me many things about living in this world.
 (“Things” and “living in the world” are too vague. Try to be more
specific; for example, you may say “My brother taught me hoe to get
along with others at parties.”)
 Besides, try to avoid making the thesis statement an announcement
or beginning it with such expressions as “I think . . . ,” “I believe . . . ,”
or “In my opinion . . .,”as shown in the following.
 The thesis of this composition is the benefits of students’ doing parttime jobs.

I am going to discuss the benefits of students’ doing part-time jobs.
 (These are merely announcements.)

I think it is beneficial for the students to do part-time jobs.

My opinion is that student will benefit a lot from doing part-time
jobs.
 (Redundant beginning. Not forceful statements.)
 2.3 OUTLINING THE ESSAY
 These are usually three kind of outline used in writing: the scratch
outline, the topic outline, and the sentence outline.
 A scratch outline
 “The Value of part-time jobs in summer vacation”:

Earning money for expense in college

Opportunity to learn how to get along with different kinds of
people

Develop a sense of responsibility
 Enhance the adaptability to new environment
 Possibility to learn practical skills
 The following is another example of scratch outline under the topic
“The Vocational Choice before Graduation”:

1 Advantages of the job (being a teacher)

a) Job security

b) Stable family life
 2 Two vacations

a) Relaxation by traveling

b) Reading and self-improvement
 3 Sense of achievement

a) When seeing students making progress

b) Having students all over the country
















Topic outline
“The Vocational Choice before Graduation.”
Thesis: I have decided to be a teacher after graduation because of the
vocational “stableness,” the enviable two vacations, and particularly the
strong sense of achievement and success to be experienced in he teaching
career. sense of achievement and success to be experienced in the teaching
career.
I Introduction
II the main advantages of being a teacher
A job security
B stable income
C stable family life
III the two vacations- the privilege of the teacher
A relaxation by traveling during vacations
B self-improvement by reading and continuing study
IV the strong sense of achievement and success
A when seeing students making progress
B when greeted by students
C when realizing you have students all over the country
V conclusion












The sentence outline
The following is an example of sentence outline for a composition with the
same title as that of the above:
Thesis: I have decided to be a teacher after graduation because of the
vocational “stableness,” the enviable two vacations, and particularly the
strong sense of achievement and success to be experienced in the teaching
career.
I introduction
II the vocational “stableness” of being a teacher is a big attraction for
the graduates
A Teachers have a greater job security.
B Teachers have a stable income
C Teacher can enjoy stable family life.
III the two vacations, the privilege of teachers, are another big
attraction.
A
Teachers can enjoy themselves and relax in traveling during
vacations.
B
teachers can further improve themselves by making continuing
study.
IV There is a strong sense of achievement and success in the profession
of teaching.
A
You will have a sense of success when you see students
making progress.

B
You will have a special happiness when you are greeted by
your students.

C
The strongest sense of achievement comes from the
realization that you have students all over the country.
 V Conclusion

 2.4 Writing the first draft
 2.5 Revising the draft
 In the revision of the content of the draft, the writer may answer the
following questions:
 (1) Is the topic limited enough?
 (2) Do you have a definite, informative, and significant thesis that is
sufficiently focused and clearly expressed?
 (3) Is the thesis adequately supported by the major points of the
body paragraphs?
 (4) Is there anything that needs to be strengthened or can be left out?
 (5) Dose your composition contain anything that your readers will
find new, useful, or interesting?
 If there are some negative answers to the above questions, try to
make relevant improvement until you feel satisfied. Then, check the
organization and development of ideas by answering the following
questions:
 (1) Dose your composition have a definite introduction, body, and
conclusion?
 (2) Is the thesis statement properly and clearly located in the first
(or sometimes the second) paragraph?
 (3) Are all the body paragraphs arranged in a original order that
reveals a clear line of thought?
 (4) Are the ideas within each paragraph ordered in a sensible way?
 (5) Does each body paragraph have a topic (or orienting) statement?
 (6) Is the topic statement of each body paragraph adequately and
convincingly supported by specific details?
 (7) Do all the supporting paragraphs and details stick to the point,
and stick together?
 (8) Have you used proper transitions to bring all the paragraphs
together?
 (9) Dose each body paragraph have an adequate development to
support the point?
 (10) Are there any ideas or comments that need to be deleted
because they are off the point, or need to be combined because they
are repetitious?
 (11) Does the conclusion bring the whole composition to a natural
and meaningful ending or to an abrupt and awkward stop?
 Finally, you may focus on the features on the features of wording and
style. The following checklist will be helpful in guiding you revision:
 (1) Is your composition ways to read?
 (2) Is each sentence as clear and precise as possible?
 (3) Are there any sentences, expressions, and/or words that may
cause confusion or misunderstanding from the reader?
 (4) Are there any unnecessary words to cut from particular
sentences?
 (5) Are there any expressions or structures which are typically
Chinese English and which are awkward to read?
 (6) Do sentences have variety in the way they are put together?
 2.6 Making the final copy
Unit 3 Narration
 3.1 What Is Narration
Narration is the telling of a story—the recounting of events, usually
in chronological order. In other words, narration tells a story by
presenting a sequence of events. Like the other forms of writing—
argumentation, exposition, and description—it is distinctive but
rarely exclusive (Even a novel or narrative poem usually contains
extensive description.)
Narration can be the dominant pattern in many types of writing—
formal, such as history, biography, autobiography, personal
experience, and journalism, as well as informal, such as personal
letters and entries in diaries and journals. Narration is also an
essential part of casual conversation, and it may dominate tall tales,
speeches, and interesting stories, as well as news and feature
stories presented on television. In short, any time someone “tells
what happened,” he is using narration.
When we compose a narrative, we can tell a complete story which
by itself illustrates or supports the thesis of the composition. But
narration can also occur in a body part to support or illustrate a
particular point in an expository or argumentative composition. For
example, the writer should tell the reader clearly who was involved in
the story (participants), where the events in the story took place
(location), the circumstances in which the story took place (setting),
the main things that happened (events), and what happened at the
end (outcome). Besides, he may sometimes tell his reader what his
impression of the story is, and how it makes him feel. The narrative
should be brief and relevant to the purpose it tries to achieve.
Wherever it occurs, narration is primarily the expression of action
in time. As a student, however—unless you are writing fiction (short
stories or novels)—you will use narration in conjunction with other
methods of development. In an argument you could use a narrative
anecdote to emphasize or illustrate your position.
 3.2 How to Write A Narration
 In organizing a narrative essay, a clear structure should always be
followed. When relating an event or personal experience, we usually
automatically organize our thoughts in some kind of temporal
pattern, since we generally perceive experience in terms of past,
present, and future. And of course, we may write a narrative about a
personal experience in which we bring the past into the present with
a new insight. In other words, we use present knowledge to illustrate
the past. We may also include description in our narrative to give it
that quality of reality.
 3.2.1 The Introduction
 3.2.2 The Body
 3.2.3 The Conclusion
 3.3 Logical Pattern
 Most narratives present events in exactly the order in which they
occurred, moving from beginning to end, from first event to last.
Whether or not you follow a strict chronological order, though,
depends on the purpose of your narrative. If you are writing a
straightforward account of a historical event or presenting a series
of poor management practices, you will probably want to move
efficiently from beginning to end. Often, however, in writing personal
experience essays, you may choose to engage your reader’s interest
by beginning with a key event from the middle of your story, or even
from the end, and then presenting the events that led up to it. In
fictional narratives or in personal experience essays, you may also
begin in the present and then use a series of flashbacks, shifts into
the past, to tell your story. Whatever ordering scheme you use, it
should shape and direct your narrative. Without some plan for clear
and orderly progression, you readers will be unable to follow your
story.
 Verb tense
 Transitions
 3.4 Point of View
Most narratives are recounted from the viewpoint of some character.
 Generally speaking, there are only two points of view to be adopted
in narration.
The first-person in which case the narrator will refer to himself or
herself as I, and the third-person, which the characters being
referred to as he or she or they.
 First person
 Third person
 Third person
 A general rule of point of view
 Example
 3.5 Language in Narration
 In narration, you must make certain that your language
communicates your experience effectively to the reader. Thus,
natural, clear and lively language is required to avoid affectation,
ambiguity and dullness. The words you select to convey your ideas
should be not only familiar and recognizable, but also fresh, vivid and
attractive to your reader. You will be able to describe the exact
perceptions and emotions you want to share with your reader once
accurate and expressive words are applied.
 Moreover, chronological order requires some special time words and
phrases to be used to smooth the narrative development.
 Example
 Dialogue and setting
 In the previous essay, dialogue and setting are used to achieve the
effects of the reality and make readers more closely in the events.
Dialogue and setting are discussed below.
 Dialogue
 Setting
 The elements making up a setting include:
Unit 4 Description
 4.1 What Is Description
 Unlike narration, which projects a moving picture in which action
itself is dominant, description draws a still-life or an animated
picture. The purpose of description is to create a word picture---a
clear image in readers’ mind---of persons, places, objects, and
emotions. In other words, you have an image of something or
someone in your mind and you attempt to create that image in the
mind of your reader. To be more specific, when the writer recreates
his experience of the world, he is trying to capture the way he saw it,
heard it, felt it, tasted it or smelled it. Good description not only
appeals to the reader’s sense of sound, smell, touch, taste, and sight,
but also has a focus. It is filled with details that help to create a
dominant impression.
 Though description can be written for its own sake, as a form of
artistic expression, it most often supports the other types of writing.
Good description strengthens other forms of development, especially
narration. Almost every composition, whether telling a story, making
some explanation, or arguing a point, calls for some kind of
description. The writer makes use of the power of description to
enrich his discussion and to make an impression on the reader.
 You can describe something physical and concrete, but you can also
describe a feeling or thought. You may use connotative, figurative, or
emotional language. You may describe by using examples,
comparison and contrast, or analysis.
 Careful selection of detail is the key to successful description. You
want to be specific, associative, fresh, vivid, and you must provide
sufficient detail to produce the right degree of sensory impression.
Don’t overdo it, but don’t be satisfied with only a bare framework
either. Good description makes all types of prose writing better.
 4.2 How to Write A Description
 Good description follows a plan. When you describe something, you
supply details about it and arrange those details in a way that makes
sense. For example, you can describe an object by starting with its
most important feature and then describing other features of lesser
importance. Or you can follow a spatial order, arranging the objects
to be described in some systematic sequence in space. The main
point is that you must follow a plan or design. If your paper is nothing
more than a hodge-podge of unrelated details, you will confuse or
even lose your reader.
 To provide a good description of an object, a place, or a person and
to obtain sufficient and relevant details for descriptive writing, you
must make use of the five senses—touch, smell, taste, sight and
hearing.
 Your senses play an important part in descriptive writing. When you
are writing a descriptive essay, be sure to make your details
associative, and use various types of figurative language to create a
strong mental picture.
 The Introduction
 The Body
 The Conclusion



4.2.1 Description of An Object
In organizing details for the description of an object, you must
depend on your senses because you would inevitably mention its size,
shape, color, texture, taste and smell. It is also necessary to indicate
its functions and its role in daily life. But emphasis should be placed
on only one aspect of the object, probably its most important
characteristic which is decided by the central impression revealed in
the thesis statement.
Sample
 4.2.2 Description of A Place
 In describing a certain place or a special scent, it is essential to
begin with a thesis statement that includes the dominant feature of
and the writer’s personal feelings about it. You should make a list of
details you recall through the memories you associate with the
scene. These sensory details, should then be arranged according to
some spatial plan of organization which indicates the point of view or
position from which the description if being written.
 Sample
 4.2.3 Description of Person
 As a character sketch, the description of a person is more
complicated and also more commonly practiced. It may involve some
factual details about a person’s physical appearance, but it does
more to characterize the personality, the thoughts, feelings and
behaviors of the individual. In order to create a clear vivid picture of a
person, you must use your senses to observe the ways the person
looks, talks, walks and even smells. Details derived from this close
observation enable you to depict thoroughly the full image of the
person. More significantly, the core of a character sketch rests in
presenting and illustrating an individual’s most striking or
memorable qualities.
 Sample






4.3 Logical Pattern
No matter what your paragraph describes—an object, person,
location, or event—you cannot list details at random; this would only
confuse your reader. Just as in writing a narrative, writing a
description requires a reasonable order of development which helps
the reader to visualize more easily the picture you are trying to
reproduce, in a way his eye might easily follow:
from left to right or from right to left,
from top to bottom or from bottom to top,
from front to back or from back to front, and
from the center to the outside or from the outside to the center.
You can present to your reader the view that you had as an actual
observer, your eyes sweeping around a room, from a fixed position,
scanning an object fro top to bottom, examining a person from head
to toe, or contemplating a landscape from the horizon to where you
are standing. As an observer, you may even choose a particular or
unique characteristic and extend your pattern of details outward
from it. Or you can relate your impressions as objects come into view,
as you pass something, or as you walk around it.
If you are in motion, you can relate your impressions as objects
come into view or as you pass something—or even as you walk
around it.
To best illustrate the details in spatial order, transitions play a very
important role in achieving coherence.
 4.4 Language in Description
 Generally, descriptive writing calls for language characterized by
standard usage of English. Since you are more distant from the
reader than you approach in narrative writing, you will be committed
not only to a more general use of vocabulary and grammatical
structures, but also to a more careful consideration of word meaning.
Of course, writing effective descriptions depends on other factors,
such as careful observation and meaningful details, but especially
important is the skillful use of language. The greater your knowledge
of words and the more careful your selection of them, the better the
descriptions will be.
 We know that effective writing employs precise words, phrases and
comparisons that leave a particular impression on the reader. The
clarity of the image you wish to create depends on your attention to
details. Your task, like the painter’s, is to make every stroke of your
“brush” reveal some aspect of the object, place or person you are
painting.
 4.5 Samples of Student Essays
 Sample 1
 Sample 2
 Sample 3
Unit 5 Exposition

Expository writing is at the heart of all communication. You cannot
arrive at reasonable conclusions or make valid suggestions unless
you have a substantial body of information on which to base your
judgments. That information is received or conveyed through
exposition.
 5.1 Expository Essay of Process
 Occasions arise daily when it is necessary for us to tell others how to
do something or to make something.
 Directions inaccurately given can cause inconvenience, serious
confusion, and even tragedy.
 It is very important, then, for you to have some experience in
preparing short process themes.
 Process themes are usually short, although the use of charts, graphs,
tables, and photographs may extend them somewhat.
 The following passage is a typical explanation of a process. Note the
simplicity of language and clarity of sequence.
 5.2 Expository Essay of Comparison and Contrast

In a way ， where is nothing complex about comparison and
contrast. You do it almost everyday when you go shopping in the
market （Which fish，pork，spinach，carrots，doufu，are more
fresh and less expensive?）.Generally speaking，comparison and
contrast involves two basic steps: identifying the points for
comparison and contrast and choosing an effective way to organize
the similarities and differences.
 (1) Points for comparing and contrasting
 (2) Two ways for organizing comparison and contrast
 Once you have identified similarities and differences through
comparison and contrast，you can organize them through two basic
ways: subject-by-subject and point-by-point.
 Subject-by-Subject
 Otherwise called chunking ， subject-by-subject organization is to
present each of the two subjects separately，that is ，you write first
about one of the subjects ， covering the points completely （ in
another chunk）. The following is a short paragraph on the two
professors using subject-by-subject organization:
 Point-by-Point
 Otherwise called sequencing ， point-by-point organization is to
discuss the two subjects for each point of comparison and contrast，
that is ，you write about the first point in terms of the similarities
and differences between the two subjects，then proceed to the next
point，and so on. Here is a short paragraph on the two professors
using point-by-point organization:



5.3 Expository Essay of Definition
(1) Sentence definition
A sentence-length definition, though quite brief, usually contains
three basic elements:
1) the term to be defined;
2) the general group or class the term belongs to; and
3) the distinguishing characteristics of the term.
 2) Extended definition
 Often times, however, it takes the length of a paragraph or a fullfledged essay to define an idea or concept.
 The following passage is a typical explanation of a definition.
 5.4 Expository Essay of Cause and Effect
 We do cause and effect analysis almost everyday，whether we are
aware of it or not. Indeed，cause and effect analysis is a very useful
strategy for both thinking，organizing，and presenting ideas. In
using this strategy，we need first to distinguish between cause and
effect，and then to find effective ways to organize the detailed
causal analysis.
 (1) Distinguishing between cause and effect
 When we ask questions about why certain things happen，we are
seeking causes；when we ask questions about what will happen as
a result of certain causes，we are trying to understand the effects.
 (2) Organizing Cause and Effect
 There are three basic ways of organizing cause-effect analysis :
chronological，order of importance，and category. Which one you
use depends on the overall rhetorical situation: the nature of the
subject， the kind of audience you are writing to，and the specific
purpose you want to achieve.
 Chronological
 A chronological organization means arranging the discussion by
following the time sequence in which actual events happened or
unfolded. This organization is effective for topics which involve
narrating how something happened through a period of time.
 Order of Importance
 In an analysis which involves multiple causes and effects， you can
use the order-of –importance organization: either you arrange the
factors from the least important ones to the most important ones, or
from the most important ones to the least important ones. The leastto-most importance organization would produce a climatic effect
while the most-to-least importance organization would give the
strongest factor first to impress the reader.
 Categorical
 In addition to chronological and order-of-importance methods of
organization， you can also group the various factors into different
categories and arrange them accordingly.
 5.5 Expository Essay of Exemplification
 Examples are specific details or instances that serve to illustrate a
more general idea or statement. Examples make abstract or general
statements easier to understand. Imagine this book on writing
without all the examples!
 (1) Relevant Examples
 By relevant is meant that the examples should be directly related to
and serve to explain the general statement.
 (2) Specific Examples
 Suppose your general statement is “High-rise apartments are not
conducive to positive relationship among neighbors.” The first
example you use to illustrate the general statement is that “other
than in the elevator，residents barely have a chance to say hello to
each other.”
 (3) Sufficient Examples
 How many examples are considered sufficient? Again，it depends on
the whole rhetorical situation : the complexity of the subject，your
audience’ s familiarity with it，and your purpose in writing. If it is a
simple topic and your audience are familiar with the subject，one or
two examples may be sufficient. Otherwise，you may need more.
Generally speaking，three is a good number to go. In the following
passage, the authors uses sufficient examples to lead to the general
statement.
 5.6 Expository Essay of Classification/Division
 If you have ever read the “Classified”section of any American
newspaper，you’ll have a very good sense what if is meant by
classification. Classification is a strategy of explaining or examining
a subject by organizing its components or various parts into
categories. For instance，if you want to explain sports in the United
States，you can organize them，at least the more popular ones，
into a number of sub-groups:
Sports
(subject)
Basketball
(subgroup)
Baseball
(subgroup)
Others
(subgroup)
Football
(subgroup)
Ice Hockey
(subgroup)
Ice Hockey
(subgroup)
 (1) Choosing the principles to classify
 To use the strategy of classification effectively，the first thing you
need to do is to decide on the principle(s)by which to classify the
subject. Depending on your need and the purpose of your writing，
you can classify a subject in a number of ways by using different
principles.
 (2) Testing the effectiveness

The following basic rules can help you test the effectiveness of your
classification:

It should be appropriate to your purpose of writing.

It should be consistent, so that resulting subgroups are based on
the same principle.

It should be exclusive, so that resulting subgroups do not overlap.

It should be complete, so that no important subgroups are omitted.
 5.7 Samples of Student Essays
 Sample 1
 Sample 2
 Sample 3
UNIT SIX ARGUMENTATION
 6.1 PRINCIPLES OF ARGUMENTATION
 6.1.1 Appeals of Argumentation
 (1) The Logical Appeal
 To examine the logical relationships among facts, evidence,
statements, and, ideas, you should ask the following questions:








Is this a fact or opinion?
Are the facts and evidences cited believable, accurate, and relevant?
Is there enough evidence to support the position?
Is the causal (cause and effect) relationship (between one thing and
another) real or no more than appearance?
What are the assumptions (both mine and my opponent’s)?
Are they reasonable or poorly grounded?
Is the conclusion drawn reasonably from the premises offered to
support it? Is there too much a leap from the premises (facts,
evidences, and examples) to the conclusion?
A sound logic is the foundation of an effective argument and without
it, no matter how eloquent and passionate you are, all you have is no
more than a lot of hot air and you will not be able to win over a
discerning audience.
 (2) The Emotional Appeal
 Humans are not only rational beings, able to think and reason
logically, but also emotional beings, subject to and responsive to a
whole range of feelings. Accordingly to write an effective argument,
you should try not only to show the audience the logic of your
position, but also to appeal to their emotions so as to make them
feel and care for the issue you are addressing.
 (3) The Ethical Appeal
 As a writer, you create the persona through how you build up your
argument: how knowledgeable you are a bout the subject, how clear
are the logical connections between statements and ideas shown,
how sincere and fair-minded you are (whether you are willing to
consider your opponent’s views carefully), and how clear and
graceful your style (use of words, sentences, etc.) is. We have all
come across an argumentative essay now and then, even in some
major newspapers, in which the writer lectures in a rather arrogant
voice, or denounces the opponent in a belligerent tone, as if he alone
owns all the truths in the whole universe. Occasionally, some writers
even fall as low as name-calling. How effective. Can that kind of
argument be?
 6.1.2 Key Features of Argumentative Writings
 (1) It Clearly Defines the Issue and Has a Clear Position
 (2) The Argument Is Well Reasoned and Well Developed
 This refers to the two main components of an effective argument:
confirmation and refutation
 (3) It Has an Appropriate Tone and Credible Persona.
 6.1.3 Five Basic Components

 (1) Introduction
 (2) Exposition
 (3) Confirmation
 (4) Refutation
 (5) Conclusion
6.2 Techniques of writing argumentation
6.2.1 The Beginnings
Come straight to point
It is difficult to measure exactly the influence of advertising on sales.
When the market is growing, advertising helps to increase its
demand. When the market is shrinking, advertising may prevent a
bigger fall in sales than would occur without its support. What is that
businesses would not pay large sums for advertising if they were not
convinced of its value to them.
 Use an arresting question
 Do you find getting up in the morning so difficult that it is painful?
This might be called laziness, but some scientists have new
explanations. They have proved that everyone has a daily energy
cycle.








Use comparison and contrast.
We find that bright children are rarely held back by mixed-ability
teaching. On the contrary, both their knowledge and experience are
enriched. We feel there are many disadvantages in streaming pupils.
It does not take into account the fact that children develop at
different rates. It can have a bad effect on both the bright and notso-bright child. After all, it can be quite discouraging to be at the
bottom of the top grade.
Use statistics
In today’s world, percentage of persons aged 60 and over now
ranges from about 13% to 20% in developed nations and 4% to 8% in
developing nations. Some of these people feel very lonely and many
of them need to be taken care of. If we can pay due attention to their
needs and do more than talk to help them, we can greatly change
the quality of their life.

The narrative hook

My parents gave me a stereo today, but instead of feeling happy, I
felt a little sad and guilty, as I always do when I receive nice
presents. I always think about how much I have and little my mother
had when she was growing up. When my mother was a girl, the other
children made fun of her because of her shabby clothes. Her dresses
were often rumpled and hung on her like limp pillowcases. She had
to take whatever second-hand clothes she could get at the shift
shop. The other children also laughed at her because of her home.
She lived with her brother and sister in a one-room shed in the back
of their uncle’s house until the day she married my father.

An apt quotation

“Time”, says the proverb “is money”. This means that every moment
well-spent may put some money into our pockets. If you time is
usefully employed, it will either turn out some useful and important
piece of work, o it will add to our experience and increase our
capacities so as to enable us to earn money when proper opportunity
comes. There can thus be no doubt that time is convertible into
money. Let those who think nothing of wasting time remember that
an hour misspent is equivalent to the loss of a bank-note; that an
hour utilized is equal to so much silver or gold; and then they will
probably think twice before they give their consent to the loss of any
part of their time.
 6.2.2 The Endings
 Repeat the main idea in the topic sentence.
 The world we live in gets more mechanized every year. Some
countries which were mainly agricultural a hundred years ago have
now become industrial. New factories and towns have been built on
good agricultural land. There are fewer farms to serve a much
greater population. So these farms must be more efficient in order to
produce as much food as possible. As a result, more and more farm
machine are used in place of horse.
 Make a generalization to the above ideas.
 Sometimes the pupils work in pairs; sometimes they work on
individual tasks and assignments, and they can do this at their own
speed. They also have some formal class teaching when this is
appropriate. We encourage our pupils to use the library, and we
teach them the skills they need in order to do this efficiently. In short,
we encourage our pupils to do their best, not their least, and we give
them every encouragement to attain this goal.






Use a question to end a paragraph.
One of the newest taboos in American society is the topic of fat. Fat is a
topic that Americans talk about constantly. It’s not taboo to talk about fat; t
is taboo to be fat. In the work world, most companies prefer youthful-looking
people. The thin look is associated with youth while the fat person is thought
of as lazy and lacking in energy. After all, how can people who care about
themselves and the way they look permit themselves to become fat?
Use negation for emphasis
Like most skills, making friends is also s skill. It improves with practice. If
you want to meet people and make friends, you should take some actions.
You must first go where there are people. For example, join a club or group;
or join someone in some activity. Taking with those who like the same things
as you is much easier. You will not make friends staying at home.
Make comments on the above details.
The working conditions were poor. The tables where the worker sat were
very high and uncomfortable. Except for a half at lunch time, there were no
breaks in the day to relieve the boring work. There was no music. The wall of
the workrooms were a dull gray color. I was amazed that the workers hadn’t
gone on strike.




6.2.3 Writing Methods of the Body
6.2.3.1 Logic in Writing
Read the paragraph, paying attention to its structure.
There are two main reasons why I have decided to attend Nankai
University. First of all, there is the advantage of location. Tianjing is
not far from my hometown and it is very convenient to travel between
the two cities. Besides, I have been looking forward to living in a
seaside city for several years since my childhood. The second reason
is the fine education that I feel I will receive there in computer
science, my chosen field. It is a well-known fact that Nankai hires
only the finest professors in its Department of Computer Science.
Moreover, the university requires all computer science students to
gain practical experience by working in companies in the area while
thet are still at university.
 1….. two main reasons

 2. First of all….

(advantage of location; not far from home)
 3.The second reason….
 (quality of education; fine teachers; practical experience)
 6.2.3.2 Order of Importance

 Let’s read the following list and also assume that the last reason is
what the author value most.
 My reasons for bicycling to work:
 going to work on time.
 a cheap means of transportation
 good to your health
 not a threat to the environment
 Arrange the above items from the least important to the most
important.
 Bicycling to work is recommendable for more than one reason. First
of all, you can always be sure that you go to work on time. You must
have seen hundreds of vehicles, one followed another, honking and
crawling along the seemingly endless street during rush hours. Yet
bicycles are rarely caught in such traffic jams because of its size.
Besides, bicycling to work is a rather cheap means of transportation.
A bicycle, if properly maintained, can at least work for 10 years.
Moreover, bicycling to work does much good to your health. Most
important of all, the bicycle needs no fuel, and consequently, is not a
threat to the environment. Living in the earth village, all of us should
conscientiously take the responsibilities of protecting it from
avoidable damage.
 Then develop the paragraph from the most important item to the
least important one.
 Bicycling to work is recommendable for more than one reason. Most
important of all, the bicycle needs no fuel, and consequently , is not
a threat to the environment. living in the earth village, all of us
should conscientiously take the responsibilities of protecting it from
avoidable damage. Moreover, bicycling to work does much good to
your health. Besides, bicycling to work is a rather cheap means of
transportation. A bicycle, if properly maintained, can at least work
for 10 years. Finally, you can always be sure that you go to work on
time. You must have seen hundreds of vehicles, one followed another,
honking and crawling along the seemingly endless street during rush
hours. Yet bicycles are rarely caught in such traffic jams because of
its size.
 The following is another paragraph that is developed from the most
important item to the least important one.


Attractions of Travelling:
1.experiencing unknown places.
2.relaxation
3.making friends.
4.strengthening the health.
 Traveling does have some attractions. The first greatest charm of
traveling is to experience the freshness of a completely unknown
place by visiting places of historic interest, meeting different people
with dialect difficult to understand and tasting different food.
Another irresistible lure is the relaxation that only traveling can offer
after long period of hard work and tension. Besides, people can also
take the chance to make friends and to know more about the
different ways of thinking. Moreover, people can strengthen their
health through climbing mountains or going on foot ore frequently.
 We may use the following substitutions to express the most
important items:
 Most essential
factor
 The most important
+ reasons is ________
Primary
(etc.)
 6.2.3.3 From General Statements to Specific Facts
 For example,
 Water can also be very dangerous although it is indispensable to
human life. Heavy rains cause floods which wash away buildings and
drawn people. Polluted water kills fish and plants and can kill people
if they drink it. A tidal wave can wipe out an entire village in a few
seconds.
 Exams have an apparent effect on the blood pressure of the students
taking them. In a recent study, it was shown that the average
student’s blood pressure rose from 115/55 before the exam to
155/115 at the end of the exam. Ten minutes after the examination
period had ended, the students’ blood pressure were still quite high,
averaging 150/110.
 Read the following paragraph,

For many senior citizens in the United States, the years after 65
are not enjoyable. Some of the old people are extremely poor. Many
because more concerned with their health as they grow older. Most
of them feel lonely.
 The ideas in the above paragraph are very general, and therefore, not
very convincing as they are short of specific facts. They will become
better it specific facts can be used to futher illustrate each general
statement. Read the following revision.

For many senior citizens in the United State, the years after 65 are
not enjoyable. Some of the old people are extremely poor. Recent
statistics suggest that about one-seventh of all people over the age
of 65 live below the poverty level. Moreover, they become concerned
with their health and more vulnerable to diseases. In addition, most
of them feel lonely. Many older people live by themselves. Some,
deserted by their families, are sent to old age homes.
Unit 7 Summary and Book Report
 7.1 Summary
 A summary，as a special form of writing，is a condensation of a
composition. It may be one-third to one-fourth as long as the original
passage. As an assignment，it may be a 100-word，200-word，
300-or 500-word restatement of the original. The watchword for
writing a summary is accuracy: whatever we do is to convey the
message of the original faithfully without any comment.
 To ensure that our summary is accurate，we have several things to
do:
 (1) Making sure that we fully understand what we are summarizing
 (2) Following the logical order of the original to arrange the main
ideas and facts
 (3) Putting the ideas in our own words
 (4) Doing no patchwork even if we have some phrases or sentences
directly quoted from the original
 7.2 Book Report
 A book report is another special form of writing. Like a theme as an
assignment to students，a book report is a routine work for the
teacher to check up the reading comprehension of his students ，
and their ability in evaluating books.
 A book report requires，first，a summary; and then some other
elements asked for by the teacher，such as information about the
author and his times，and comments on the book.
 A book report requires，first，a summary; and then some other
elements asked for by the teacher，such as information about the
author and his times，and comments on the book.
 Below is a model book report.
The End