Structuring an argument:
Introductions, Body Paragraphs, and
Conclusions for an Argument Paper
The introduction is the broad beginning of the
paper that answers three important questions:
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What is this?
Why am I reading it?
Why do we care about this topic?
You should answer these questions by doing the
following:
 Set the context –provide general information about
the main idea, explaining the situation so the reader
can make sense of the topic and the claims you make
and support
 State why the main idea is important –tell the reader
why he or she should care and keep reading. Your
goal is to create a compelling, clear, and convincing
essay people will want to read and act upon
 State your thesis/claim –compose a sentence or two
stating the position you will support
with logos (sound reasoning: induction,
deduction), pathos (balanced emotional appeal),
and ethos (author credibility).
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When writing a research paper, you may need
to use a more formal, less personal tone.
Provide the background of the situation,
outline, explain and support important
positions.
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Your thesis is more than a general statement
about your main idea. It needs to establish a
clear position you will support with balanced
proof. Use the checklist below to help you
create a thesis.
Make sure you avoid the following when
creating your thesis:
1. A thesis is not a title or a question:
Homes and schools (title)
Should schools be used as shelters?
Parents ought to participate more in the
education of their children (good thesis).
2.
3.
A thesis is not an announcement of the
subject:
My subject is the incompetence of the
Supreme Court
The Supreme Court made a mistake
when it ruled in favour of George W.
Bush in the 2000 election.
A thesis is not a statement of absolute
fact:
Jane Austen is the author of Pride and
Prejudice.
4. A thesis is not the whole essay:
 A thesis is your main
idea/claim/refutation/problem-solution
expressed in a SINGLE SENTENCE or a
combination of sentences.
5. Please note that according to the MLA Handbook
for Writers of Research Papers,Seventh Edition, "A
thesis statement is a SINGLE SENTENCE that
formulates both your topic and your point of
view" (Gibaldi 42). However, if your paper is
more complex and requires a thesis statement,
your thesis may require a combination of
sentences.
Make sure you follow these guidelines when
creating your thesis:
1. A good thesis is unified:
NOT: Detective stories are not a high form of
literature, but people have always been
fascinated by them, and many fine writers have
experimented with them
BETTER: Detective stories appeal to the basic human
desire for thrills (concise).
2. A good thesis is specific:
NOT: James Joyce’s Ulysses is very
good.
BETTER: James Joyce’s Ulysses helped
create a new way for writers to deal
with the unconscious.
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3. Be as specific as possible (without providing
too much detail) when creating your thesis:
NOT: James Joyce’s Ulysses helped create a new
way for writers to deal with the unconscious.
BETTER:
James Joyce’s Ulysses helped create a new way
for writers to deal with the unconscious by
utilizing the findings of Freudian psychology
and introducing the techniques of literary
stream-of-consciousness.
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The thesis/claim follows the guidelines outlined
above
The thesis/claim matches the requirements and
goals of the assignment
The thesis/claim is clear and easily recognizable
The thesis/claim seems supportable by good
reasoning/data, emotional appeal
The thesis statement or main claim must be
debatable
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An argumentative or persuasive piece of writing
must begin with a debatable thesis or claim. In
other words, the thesis must be something that
people could reasonably have differing opinions
on. If your thesis is something that is generally
agreed upon or accepted as fact then there is no
reason to try to persuade people.
Pollution is bad for the environment.
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This thesis statement is not debatable. First, the
word pollution means that something is bad or
negative in some way. Further, all studies
agree that pollution is a problem; they simply
disagree on the impact it will have or the scope
of the problem. No one could reasonably argue
that pollution is good.
At least 25 percent of the national budget should
be spent on limiting pollution.
 This is an example of a debatable thesis
because reasonable people could disagree with
it. Some people might think that this is how we
should spend the nation's money. Others might
feel that we should be spending more money
on education. Still others could argue that
corporations, not the government, should be
paying to limit pollution.
America's anti-pollution efforts should
focus on privately owned cars.
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In this example there is also room for
disagreement between rational individuals.
Some citizens might think focusing on recycling
programs rather than private automobiles is the
most effective strategy.
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Although the scope of your paper might seem
overwhelming at the start, generally the
narrower the thesis the more effective your
argument will be. Your thesis or claim must be
supported by evidence. The broader your claim
is, the more evidence you will need to convince
readers that your position is right.
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Drug use is detrimental to society.
There are several reasons this statement is too broad to
argue.
1.
First, what is included in the category "drugs"? Is the
author talking about illegal drug use, recreational drug
use (which might include alcohol and cigarettes), or all
uses of medication in general?
2.
Second, in what ways are drugs detrimental? Is drug use
causing deaths (and is the author equating deaths from
overdoses and deaths from drug related violence)? Is
drug use changing the moral climate or causing the
economy to decline?
3.
Finally, what does the author mean by "society"? Is the
author referring only to Guyana or to the global
population? Does the author make any distinction
between the effects on children and adults? There are just
too many questions that the claim leaves open. The
author could not cover all of the topics listed above, yet
the generality of the claim leaves all of these possibilities
open to debate.
No: Drug use is detrimental to society.
Better: Illegal drug use is detrimental because it
encourages gang violence.
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In this example the topic of drugs has been
narrowed down to illegal drugs and the
detriment has been narrowed down to gang
violence. This is a much more manageable
topic.
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We could narrow each debatable thesis from the
previous examples in the following way:
Narrowed debatable thesis 1:
At least 25 percent of the national budget should be
spent on limiting pollution (good)
 At least 25 percent of the national budget should be
spent on helping upgrade business to clean
technologies, researching renewable energy sources,
and planting more trees in order to control or
eliminate pollution. (better)
 This thesis narrows the scope of the argument by
specifying not just the amount of money used but also
how the money could actually help to control
pollution.
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America's anti-pollution efforts should focus on
privately owned cars because it would allow most
citizens to contribute to national efforts and care
about the outcome.
 This thesis narrows the scope of the argument by
specifying not just what the focus of a national
anti-pollution campaign should be but also why
this is the appropriate focus.
 Qualifiers such as "typically," "generally," "usually,"
or "on average" also help to limit the scope of your
claim by allowing for the almost inevitable
exception to the rule.
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Claims typically fall into one of four categories.
Think about how you want to approach your
topic; in other words, knowing what type of
claim you want to make, is one way to focus
your thesis on one particular aspect of your
broader topic.
Claims of fact or definition:
These claims argue about what the definition of
something is or whether something is a settled
fact. Example:
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What some people refer to as global warming
is actually nothing more than normal, longterm cycles of climate change.
Claims of cause and effect:
These claims argue that one person, thing, or
event caused another thing or event to occur.
Example:
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The popularity of SUV's in America has caused
pollution to increase.
Claims about value:
These are claims made of what something is
worth, whether we value it or not, how we
would rate or categorize something. Example:

Global warming is the most pressing challenge
facing the world today.
Claims about solutions or policies:
These are claims that argue for or against a certain
solution or policy approach to a problem.
Example:
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Instead of drilling for oil in Alaska we should
be focusing on ways to reduce oil consumption,
such as researching renewable energy sources.
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Which type of thesis or claim you use for your
argument will depend on your position and
knowledge of the topic, your audience, and the
context of your paper. You might want to think
about where you imagine your audience to be
on this topic and pinpoint where you think the
biggest difference in viewpoints might be. Even
if you start with one type of claim you
probably will be using several within the
paper.
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Use an organizational structure that arranges
the argument in a way that will make sense to
the reader. The Toulmin Method of logic is a
common and easy to use formula for
organizing an argument.
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Claim: The overall thesis the writer will argue for.
Data: Evidence gathered to support the claim.
Warrant (also referred to as a bridge): Explanation of
why or how the data supports the claim, the
underlying assumption that connects your data to
your claim.
Backing (also referred to as the foundation):
Additional logic or reasoning that may be necessary to
support the warrant.
Counterclaim: A claim that negates or disagrees with
the thesis/claim.
Rebuttal: Evidence that negates or disagrees with the
counterclaim.
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Including a well-thought-out warrant
(explanation of why data supports claim) or
bridge is essential to writing a good
argumentative essay or paper. If you present
data to your audience without explaining how
it supports your thesis your readers may not
make a connection between the two or they
may draw different conclusions.
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Don't avoid the opposing side of an argument.
Instead, include the opposing side as a
counterclaim. Find out what the other side is
saying and respond to it within your own
argument. This is important so that the audience is
not swayed by weak, but unrefuted, arguments.
Including counterclaims allows you to find
common ground with more of your readers. It also
makes you look more credible because you appear
to be knowledgeable about the entirety of the
debate rather than just being biased or uniformed.
You may want to include several counterclaims to
show that you have thoroughly researched the
topic.
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A paragraph is a collection of related sentences
dealing with a single topic. Learning to write
good paragraphs will help you as a writer stay
on track during your drafting and revision
stages. Good paragraphing also greatly assists
your readers in following a piece of writing.
You can have fantastic ideas, but if those ideas
aren't presented in an organized fashion, you
will lose your readers (and fail to achieve your
goals in writing).
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The basic rule of thumb with paragraphing is
to keep one idea to one paragraph. If you begin
to transition into a new idea, it belongs in a
new paragraph. There are some simple ways to
tell if you are on the same topic or a new one.
You can have one idea and several bits of
supporting evidence within a single paragraph.
You can also have several points in a single
paragraph as long as they relate to the overall
topic of the paragraph. If the single points start
to get long, then perhaps elaborating on each of
them and placing them in their own
paragraphs is the route to go.
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To be as effective as possible, a paragraph
should contain each of the following: Unity,
Coherence, A Topic Sentence, and Adequate
Development. As you will see, all of these
traits overlap. Using and adapting them to
your individual purposes will help you
construct effective paragraphs.
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The entire paragraph should concern itself with
a single focus. If it begins with one focus or
major point of discussion, it should not end
with another or wander within different ideas.
Coherence is the trait that makes the paragraph easily
understandable to a reader. You can help create coherence in
your paragraphs by creating logical bridges and verbal
bridges.
Logical bridges
 The same idea of a topic is carried over from sentence to
sentence.
 Successive sentences can be constructed in parallel
form(similar structure)
Verbal bridges
 Key words can be repeated in several sentences
 Synonymous words can be repeated in several sentences
 Pronouns can refer to nouns in previous sentences
 Transition words can be used to link ideas from different
sentences
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A topic sentence is a sentence that indicates in a
general way what idea or thesis the paragraph is
going to deal with. Although not all paragraphs
have clear-cut topic sentences, and despite the fact
that topic sentences can occur anywhere in the
paragraph (as the first sentence, the last sentence,
or somewhere in the middle), an easy way to make
sure your reader understands the topic of the
paragraph is to put your topic sentence near the
beginning of the paragraph. (This is a good general
rule for less experienced writers, although it is not
the only way to do it). Regardless of whether you
include an explicit topic sentence or not, you
should be able to easily summarize what the
paragraph is about.
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The topic (which is introduced by the topic
sentence) should be discussed fully and
adequately. Again, this varies from paragraph
to paragraph, depending on the author's
purpose, but writers should be wary of
paragraphs that only have two or three
sentences. It's a pretty good bet that the
paragraph is not fully developed if it is that
short.
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Use examples and illustrations
Cite data (facts, statistics, evidence, details, and
others)
Examine testimony (what other people say such as
quotes and paraphrases)
Use an anecdote or story
Define terms in the paragraph
Compare and contrast
Evaluate causes and reasons
Examine effects and consequences
Analyze the topic
Describe the topic
Offer a chronology of an event (time segments)
You should start a new paragraph when:
1.
When you begin a new idea or point. New ideas should always start in new
paragraphs. If you have an extended idea that spans multiple paragraphs,
each new point within that idea should have its own paragraph.
2.
3.
4.
To contrast information or ideas. Separate paragraphs can serve to contrast
sides in a debate, different points in an argument, or any other difference.
When your readers need a pause. Breaks between paragraphs function as a
short "break" for your readers—adding these in will help your writing more
readable. You would create a break if the paragraph becomes too long or the
material is complex.
When you are ending your introduction or starting your conclusion. Your
introductory and concluding material should always be in a new paragraph.
Many introductions and conclusions have multiple paragraphs depending on
their content, length, and the writer's purpose.
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Two very important elements of paragraphing
are signposts and transitions. Signposts are
internal aids to assist readers; they usually
consist of several sentences or a paragraph
outlining what the article has covered and
where the article will be going.
Transitions are usually one or several sentences
that "transition" from one idea to the next.
Transitions can be used at the end of most
paragraphs to help the paragraphs flow one
into the next.
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Good transitions can connect paragraphs and
turn disconnected writing into a unified whole.
Instead of treating paragraphs as separate
ideas, transitions can help readers understand
how paragraphs work together, reference one
another, and build to a larger point. The key to
producing good transitions is highlighting
connections between corresponding
paragraphs. By referencing in one paragraph
the relevant material from previous
paragraphs, writers can develop important
points for their readers.
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It is a good idea to continue one paragraph
where another leaves off. (Instances where this
is especially challenging may suggest that the
paragraphs don't belong together at all.)
Picking up key phrases from the previous
paragraph and highlighting them in the next
can create an obvious progression for readers.
Many times, it only takes a few words to draw
these connections. Instead of writing
transitions that could connect any paragraph to
any other paragraph, write a transition that
could only connect one specific paragraph to
another specific paragraph.
Example: Overall, Management Systems
International has logged increased sales in every
sector, leading to a significant rise in third-quarter
profits.
 Another important thing to note is that the
corporation had expanded its international
influence.
Revision: Overall, Management Systems
International has logged increased sales in every
sector, leading to a significant rise in third-quarter
profits.
 These impressive profits are largely due to the
corporation's expanded international influence.
Example: Fearing for the loss of Danish lands,
Christian IV signed the Treaty of Lubeck,
effectively ending the Danish phase of the 30
Years War.
 But then something else significant happened.
The Swedish intervention began.
Revision: Fearing for the loss of more Danish
lands, Christian IV signed the Treaty of Lubeck,
effectively ending the Danish phase of the 30
Years War.
 Shortly after Danish forces withdrew, the
Swedish intervention began.
Example: Amy Tan became a famous author after
her novel, The Joy Luck Club, skyrocketed up the
bestseller list.
 There are other things to note about Tan as
well. Amy Tan also participates in the satirical
garage band the Rock Bottom Remainders with
Stephen King and Dave Barry.
Revision: Amy Tan became a famous author after
her novel, The Joy Luck Club, skyrocketed up the
bestseller list.
 Though her fiction is well known, her work
with the satirical garage band the Rock Bottom
Remainders receives far less publicity.