What is Social Theory?
Theory
Harrington 2005: 1-3
• Greek word theōria, opp. of praxis
• contemplation / reflection
• Reflection on the value and meaning of
different modes of contemplating the world
(art, myth, science, religion, etc.)
• Reflection of the (social) world, but also of
(social) science itself
Different meanings of „theory“
• Theory – is in itself a contested term
– Any form of systematically ordered propositions
– Anything abstract (not about empirical cases)
• Modern uses of „theory“: Sets of propositions
allowing us to generalize. Thoughts providing
explanation (establishing a causal relationship
between variables), „source of explanatory
concepts“ (Harrington 2005: 12)
• Traditionally also: „source of ways of
evaluating the point or use or meaning of such
concepts“ (Harrington 2005: 12).
– Philosophy of science (wissenschaftstheorie)
– Meta-theory (theory about theories)
Methods vs Methodology
• Method:
systematic procedure/technique to pursue a
certain aim
• Methodology:
„principles governing the application of a set of
methods“
„theory of methodical practice“ (Harrington
2005: 5)
Social Theory, Common Sense and
Social Context
• Where does social theory come from?
– From empirical observation (induction)
– From any part of social life (not necessarily from a
scientific activity), including everyday life, art etc.
– „common sense“ can be seen as a social theory about
the world (a very general, widespread and often quite
blunt theory)
– Every social theory is in some way related to the
socio-historical context in which it occurs
– It is not ABOVE ongoing social and political
developments/struggles
• Differences to everyday/common sense
theories:
– Social theory attempts to systematize and clarify
the debate
– It is usually more reflective and differentiated than
common sense
– It is constantly checked with reference to
empirical evidence
Objectivity
• Is social science / social theory objective?
– We cannot distance ourselves completely from the
social world. We are a product of this world, we have
a position / a standpoint in this world. This informs
our theories (whether in social science or everyday
life). Thus subjectivity creeps in.
– Theory (whether scientific or everyday) supplies
criteria for selection and discrimination, both with
regard to the empirical object of study (observations)
as well as with regard to explanations
Facts
• „something done“
• Refers to empirical reality (description)
• But: facts are always laden with values
• Without values/interests we do not
distinguish one fact from another
• What we look at, and how we perceive it ,is
conditioned by our values/interests
• Empirical description:
what is?
• Normative prescription: what should be?
• We cannot completely disentangle empirical
description from normative prescription
(although that is what we might attempt)
• Therefore: there is no objective truth to be
found
• Does that mean that every statement has the same claim to
be true, that social science is completely relative, that we
have no way of judging /evaluating social research?
• No!
• Theories / statements have more claim to be true,
– If they show, how one arrives at that statement, giving reason at
each step of the argument
– If they explain, how a given reason can account for an
observation
– If others are able to follow the argument and come to the same
conclusion
• It is inter-subjectivity rather than objectivity that we can
reach in social research
Objectivity :
separation of fact from value,
of empirical description from normative prescription
• Might be strived for, but never completely
possible
• Might be a/ the central goal in social research
(August Comte: positivism)
• Others deliberately start from a normative
position
• There are lots of positions in between
Types of Social Theory
• Normative, empirical, logical/deductive
• Level of analysis: micro vs macro
• Range: general/universal, mid-range, smallscale/specific
• According to major independent variable
• Materialism: socio-economic explanations,
e.g. Marxism
• Institutionalism: institutions determine social
+ political life, e.g. Aristotle, Montesquieu
• Culturalism: culture as major driving force.
Perceptions/Ideas/Values matter
• Individualism: Rational Choice (actor centred,
preferences, calculation of costs and benefits)
• Neo-Institutionalism: institutions are
facilitating and restricting options