Spices and Herbs
David S. Seigler
Department of Plant Biology
University of Illinois
Urbana, Illinois 61801 USA
seigler@life.illinois.edu
http://www.life.illinois.edu/seigler
HERBS AND SPICES: OUTLINE
Importance
o economic
o uses - embalming, medicinal, food
preparation, religious
History
o early
o Roman Empire
o Moslems
o Crusades
o Renaissance
o New World
o Portuguese/Spanish
o Dutch
o English
o modern era
Important families - botanical information
Chemistry
Reading
• CHAPTER 8, p. 192 ff.
Introduction
• For the purposes of this course we will
consider herbs and spices to be the same.
• Usually ones from leaves are called herbs.
• Many spices from Apiaceae are fruits.
• Many tropical leaves called spices.
• More than $2 billion per year business in the
U.S.
• U.S. imports more than $80,000,000 per year.
Spices in the Sudan
Courtesy Dr. Dorothea Bedigian
• Several came from the Americas: Allspice,
capsicum peppers, and vanilla.
• A number from the Mediterranean: Most of
the common herbs we use.
• Some from colder areas of Eurasia: Caraway,
horseradish.
• Most “spices” from S.E. Asia.
• In "primitive" cultures today, many other
plants are used.
• Major spices tend to be used all over the
world.
• Uses: Food preservation and to disguise the
flavor of bad food. Embalming, perfumery,
religious uses.
• For embalming in Egypt back to 2500 B.C.
• They used myrrh, cassia, cinnamon, cumin,
anise and marjoram (among other things) for
embalming.
• Many of the plants used in Egypt were not
native and even at that time were imported.
• Incense in China before 2700 B.C.
• Spices used for medicines (e.g., ascaridole from
Chenopodium ambrosioides as a vermifuge).
Spices and History
• We take spices for granted. Today they are
inexpensive compared even to 200 years
ago.
• Spices were probably the most important
factor that lead to the discovery of the New
World and to exploration of the Old.
• Garlic and onions were used as far back as
4,500 years ago.
• By 1000 B.C., there was trade in spices in the
Near East. By that time, India had already
become a center of trade for spices.
• By about 1000 B.C., camels and caravans
were going from east to west. Also to Egypt.
• The Arabs became important in the spice
trade as early as 500 B.C. There was much
misinformation. The Arabs said they got most
of their spices in Africa.
• Under the Greeks, Alexandria became a
center for spice trade. By the time of the
Roman Empire, India had become quite
important. The Greeks and Romans not only
imported spices, but silk from China. Nero
burned a year’s supply of cinnamon at one
time.
B. B. Simpson and M. C. Ogorzoly, Economic Botany
• From 600 to 1100 A.D., the Moslems
dominated. Mohammed was a spice trader
as a young man.
• The Crusades (the first in 1096). In 1099,
Jerusalem was conquered. Spices and
information about spices began to reappear in
Europe. Further, the crusaders that visited the
Near East developed a taste for spices in their
food.
• The fourth crusade left from Venice, in 1204.
Nicolo and Maffeo Polo to Asia in 1260. In 1271,
Marco Polo went back with them and visited
China. (He died in 1324). He cleared up where
many spices came from.
• Genoa and Venice became wealthy city
states because of the spice trade.
• About 1400, the Portuguese got interested.
Prince Henry, in 1418, founded a Naval
School.
• The Portuguese believed they could get to
the Orient by sea. In 1445, they reached
Cape Verde. In 1446, the Portuguese
rounded West Africa.
• In 1453, Constantinople was captured by the
Turks and that source of spices was cut off.
The Turks did not want to trade with infidel
Europe.
• In 1471, the Portuguese crossed the equator.
• In 1494, the Pope divided the world between
Spain and Portugal.
• In 1498, Da Gama reached India.
• By 1560, the overland routes again opened
up.
• In 1600-1625, the Dutch ruled Indonesia and
got a virtual monopoly on the spice trade.
• They controlled the Spice Islands (the
Moluccas) and as that was a major source of
many spices, they were able to get just about
any price they asked for spices.
• They took Sri Lanka (Ceylon) in 1636.
• The Dutch controlled the spice trade for
almost 200 years.
• In 1760, they destroyed large amounts of
spices to drive up the price. Their monopoly
was finally broken in the late 1700's. In 1799,
the Dutch East India Company collapsed.
• The English took parts of India and all of the
Eastern possessions of the Dutch except
Java. In 1824, they signed a treaty. By the
early 1800's, the English controlled most of
the spice trade.
• Since 1900, many of the spices have been
replaced by artificial substitutes. Many of the
common spices and herbs are listed on page
195. The sources of production of many of
these are listed on pg. 195.
Essential Oils
• Most spices and herbs owe their properties to
the presence of volatile compounds known
collectively as "essential oils". These
compounds make up the aroma or essence
of the plant.
• Volatile oils often found in special plant cells
and glands. Found in all parts of plants and
the contents of the different parts often differ.
• Some spices are used as extracts and others
are used as whole plant material.
Herbs and Spices of the Mediterranean
Area
• The mint family (Lamiaceae or Labiatae)
especially common the Mediterranean area
and also as a source of herbs from there. Pg.
200.
• Among the mints are rosemary (Rosmarinus
officinalis), thyme (Thymus vulgaris and other
species), oregano (Origanum vulgare), basil
(Ocimum basilicum), and marjoram (O.
majorana).
Thyme (Thymus vulgaris) Lamiaceae
Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) Lamiaceae
Sage, Salvia officinalis, Lamiaceae
• The popularity of Italian food (which in the US
mostly goes back to World War II) is
responsible for the use of oregano in the U.S.
Basil (Ocimum basilicum) is also widely used.
• Sage (Salvia officinalis) has been used since
Greek times. Most sage, today, comes from
former Yugoslavia. Sage was often used
medicinally.
• "Mint", usually spearmint (Mentha
spicata) or peppermint (M. piperita) are
widely used.
• The essential oils from these plants are
extremely important for flavoring
hundreds of products, e.g., toothpaste,
mouthwash and chewing gum.
• Much in U.S. grown in Indiana,
Michigan and Oregon.
F. Rosengarten Jr., The Book of Spices, Livingston
Publishing, 1969
• The other major family of Mediterranean
herbs is the Apiaceae or Umbelliferae.
• In this group are parsley (Petroselinum
crispum) and chervil (Anthriscus cerefolium).
• Dill (Anethum graveolens) and coriander or
cilantro (Coriandrum sativum) are widely
used as a fruit and as the leaf material.
Anethum graveolens,
dill, Apiaceae
Assafoetida, Ferula
assafoetida, Apiaceae
• Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare), cumin
(Cuminum cyminum), anise (Pimpinella
anisum), celery seed (Apium
graveolens), and caraway (Carum carvi)
are all used as the fruit.
• The essential oils in the fruits are borne
in special oil glands. pg. 201, 202, and
203.
Mustard, Brassica nigra,
Brassicaceae
The Brassicaceae or
Cruciferae are also
very important as
herbs.
The seeds of
Brassica nigra and B.
alba have long been
used (mustard).
Horseradish, Armoracia
rustica, Brassicaceae
This plant is native to
Northern Europe.
In Madison Co., Illinois
Courtesy Dr. Dusty Rhodes
Courtesy Dr. Dusty Rhodes
• Other herbs from the Mediterranean include:
tarragon (Artemisia dracunculus, Asteraceae
or Compositae), laurel (Laurus nobilis,
Lauraceae), saffron (Crocus sativus,
Iridaceae). Saffron is the dried stigma of the
flower. It is extremely expensive.
Bay leaf, Laurus nobilis,
Lauraceae
F. Rosengarten Jr., The Book of Spices,
Livingston Publishing, 1969
Capers, Capparis
spinosa,
Capparidaceae
The Complete Book of Fruits &
Vegetables, F. Bianchini, F. Corbetta,
M. Pistola, Crown Publishers, New
York, 1973
Courtesy Dr. Frances Chew
Saffron, Crocus sativus, Iridaceae
National Geographic
Anamafana, Spilanthes oleracea, Asteraceae
• These herbs were pretty much
available in Europe before trade
with Asia became important. The
exotic spices that fostered
European exploration came mostly
from India and southeast Asia.
Cinnamon, Cinnamomum spp., Lauraceae
• Cinnamon is the bark of several species of
the genus Cinnamomum.
• Used by the Egyptians 3500 years ago. Used
in the Bible as a component of annointing
oils.
• Nero burned all that was in Rome when one
of his wives died. Pg. 297 and 298.
F. Rosengarten Jr., The Book of Spices, Livingston
Publishing, 1969
• True cinnamon (C. zeylandica) is the most
desired of these.
• Cassia (also called cinnamon in many
countries) is from C. cassia. In this case not
only the bark, but also the buds are often
used.
• Most cinnamon from Sri Lanka and the
Seychelles.
F. Rosengarten Jr., The Book of Spices, Livingston
Publishing, 1969
Cloves (Syzygium aromaticum, Myrtaceae)
• Cloves, the flower buds of a tree
probably native to the Spice Islands,
was one of the spices on which the
Dutch had a monopoly.
• About one half of the world's supply of
cloves is used each year for making
cigarettes in Indonesia.
Cloves (Syzygium aromaticum, Myrtaceae)
• Cloves were imported by the Greeks
through Alexandria before the Roman
Empire. Used in China before the time
of Christ.
• Used in dentistry to deaden toothaches.
(Only cloves and capers come from
unopened flower buds).
Cloves, Syzygium aromaticum, Myrtaceae
Courtesy Axel Walther
Nutmeg and Mace
• Both nutmeg and mace come from the same
tree (Myristica fragrans, Myristicaceae).
• The fruit is a drupe that splits open at maturity
and exposes the red aril. When dried, the aril
is called mace.
• The inner part of the seed is called nutmeg.
Nutmeg is both toxic and hallucinogenic.
• Today widely grown in the West Indies, Sri
Lanka, and the Moluccas. Dioecious and
most male trees removed as soon as
possible.
Nutmeg and mace (Myristica fragrans,
Myristicaceae)
Bentley and Trimen, Medicinal Plants
Courtesy Dr. Bob Marquis
Nutmeg and mace drying in Costa Rica
Courtesy Dr. Bob Marquis
The Zingiberaceae
• Both cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum) and
ginger (Zingiber officinale) come from
southeast Asia.
• Ginger comes from the rhizome and
cardamom from the seeds.
• All were introduced into Europe by several
hundred years B.C.
• Ginger comes from West Africa, India, and
especially Jamaica (considered the finest).
• Turmeric (Curcuma domestica) is also used
for flavoring and color.
Cardamom (Elettaria
cardamomum)
F. Rosengarten Jr., The Book of Spices, Livingston
Publishing, 1969
Turmeric, Cucurmis domestica, Zingiberaceae
Courtesy Dr. Guido Holzkamp
Black pepper, Piper nigrum (Piperaceae)
• In terms of quantities traded, black pepper is
still the most important spice. It was also an
early important spice and probably the most
important in leading to the discovery of the
New World.
• Black pepper is made by picking the green
fruits of Piper nigrum (Piperaceae) and
processing them. This process involves
fermentation.
• White pepper is made from ripe fruits that are
soaked and lightly crushed to remove the
fleshy part.
Black pepper, Piper nigrum,
Piperaceae
Courtesy Dr. Roy Brown
• The U.S. is the world's leading user of
black pepper. Pg. 210.
• Produced in Indonesia, India, Brazil and
Madagascar.
Black pepper drying in
Costa Rica
Courtesy Dr. Bob Marquis
Spices from the New World
• Allspice (Pimenta dioica, Myrtaceae) is from
the same family as eucalyptus. We use the
seed.
• Columbus brought back allspice to the Old
World. It is still only grown in the New World.
F. Rosengarten Jr., The Book of Spices, Livingston
Publishing, 1969
Capsicum peppers
• This type of peppers (Capsicum species) is
now widely cultivated in many parts of the
world.
• Probably about 5 species are cultivated.
• They have become an integral part of cooking
in many parts of the world.
Chile peppers, Capsicum annuum, Solanaceae
Chile habanero, Capsicum annuum, Solanaceae
Vanilla, Vanilla planifolia (Orchidaceae)
• Vanilla is the fermented fruit of an orchid.
This is almost the only plant in the family that
is important as a food plant. Pg. 212.
• The plant is native to Mexico and other parts
of Latin America. The Aztecs used it to flavor
chocolate (along with chile peppers).
• The plants are usually hand pollinated. Good
quality vanilla is expensive. Madagascar,
Reunion, and Seychelles are major growers.
Vanilla, Vanilla
planifolia,
Orchidaceae
Courtesy Dr. Bob Marquis
Vanilla flowers and hand pollinating vanilla
flowers
Courtesy Dr. Bob Marquis
Tonka bean, Dipteryx
odorata, Fabaceae
Robert Spruce, 1850
J. F. Morton, Herbs and Spices, Golden Press, New York, 1976