Welcome to
Philosophy of Science
Ingo Böbel / Hans Mühlbacher
Scientific Research
• What is science?
• Ontology & Epistemology
• Goals of scientific work
• Ways of producing new knowledge
Group work:
What is Science ?
20 Minutes
Please form 3 groups and discuss the following questions:
1. What is science (compared to practice)?
2. What is a scientific problem (compared to a practical problem)?
Please prepare your answers for a plenary presentation.
What is Science ?
Science may be conceptualized as
1. An institution
= certain people and organizations
2. The activity of that institution
= systematic effort to create coherent knowledge
by applying specific methods
vs.
the search for truth about reality
3. The result of that activity
= publications, conferences, consulting, ....
How is new scientific knowledge created ?
Structure of the Scientific Knowledge Production Processes
Epistemology
Ontology
Assumptions about the
nature of the experienced
world (reality)
Axiology
Assumptions about the goals
of research
Selection of
substantive (objectrelated) theory
Assumptions about our potential
to recognize the real world
(= nature of knowledge
generated)
Selection of
philosophy of science approach
Research methods
e.g. Learning theory
vs.
Social network theory
vs.
Actor network theory
Research results
e.g. Empiricism
vs.
Realism
vs.
Constructivism
Ontology
is a metaphysical perspective concerning reality
What is the substantial nature of the world ?
 Spiritualism vs Materialism
there is only spiritual existence vs all existence is materiel
 Idealism vs Realism
we produce reality through perception vs reality exists independent of us
 Determinism vs Indeterminism vs Voluntarism
all natural phenomena follow strict laws vs with a certain probability
vs there are phenomena depending on our will
 Logical structure vs Symbolic structure of the world
the world is logically structured vs we structure the world using symbols
Epistemology
= Assumptions about the capability of humans to recognize reality
Can we find out about the (real) world independent of subjective perceptions?
Realism - Skepticism - Constructionism - Solipsism
• Passive affection vs active construction
Level of involvement
• Empiricism vs Rationalism
Mind vs Speech (Sentences)
Medium of knowledge
creation
• Biologically inherited vs individually learned
Acquisition of knowledge
culturally agreed vs inter-subjectively approachable creation potential
transmitted across generations
Goals of Research ?
= Having a specific cognitive interest
• Discover
• Explain
• Criticize
• Describe
• Predict
• Prescribe
• Understand
• Control
• Self-emancipation
Main Paradigms of the Social Sciences
Ontology
• Positivism
(Assumptions about reality)
are different
• Realism
• Constructivism
• Pragmatism
from each
other in
terms
Epistemology
(Assumptions about the relationship
between reality and researcher)
Axiology
(Assumptions about the goals of research)
of
Methods
(Preferred methods to discover reality)
Group work:
30 minutes
Please form 3 groups.
Each group please focus on one of the following couples of paradigms:
- positivism and critical rationalism
- interpretative approach and critical realism
- rationalism and critical theory.
Point out and compare the paradigms´ assumptions about
- reality
- a researcher´s capability to find out about reality
- the goals of research
- causality
- the proper research process.
Naturalist Perspective
Ontological Assumptions
• There is one reality.
• Reality exists in a world independent of people.
• Reality is absolute, stable, independent of time.
Naturalist Perspective
Epistemological Assumptions
• The source of all human knowledge is empirical observation.
• We can detect regular conjunctions between phenomena in the
varying multitude of our observations.
• Such regularities are both a necessary and a sufficient condition for
causality.
• Scientific research produces general truth.
• Scientific knowledge is cumulative and absolute.
• Science is objective.
• Scientific methods guarantee objectivity.
• Knowledge develops in a way independent of the researcher.
Naturalist Perspective
Axiological Assumptions
Science serves the purpose of
- detecting reality
- explaining, forecasting and controlling phenomena in that
reality.
Naturalist Perspective
Assumptions concerning the knowledge creation process:
• Distinction between facts and values:
Values affect the choice of the research domain and the research
problem.
But measurement processes and data are free of values.
• Scientists observe, describe and explain the causes of given ends
and the means for achieving them.
But they do not help to choose ends or determine the desirability of
ends.
• Measurement does not influence the research object/subject.
Naturalist Perspective
Assumptions concerning the research object:
• Individuals are independent.
• Individuals act in a rational purposive manner.
• Social processes are partly intended, partly unintended outcomes of
individuals´ purposive conduct.
Consequences for the selection of methods:
Research methods are mainly quantitative, manipulative/experimental.
Alternative Ways of Generating New Knowledge
Research design
A1
C2
Theory
B1
B2
A2
C2
B1
Methodology
C1
B2
Hypotheses
A and B = Justification
via deduction
A1
A2
Substantive domain
Observations
C1
C = Discovery
via Induction
Deduction versus Induction
Deductive Logic:
general -> specific
Key epistemological process of critical rationalists
Critical questions ?
• How can science progress, when every new research builds on existing
knowledge?
• Do we run the danger of increasingly focalized knowledge?
• Are there other ways to describe reality than the ones known so far ?
• How can an „objective“ interpretation of data and results be secured?
• How to treat measurement error?
Deduction versus Induction
Inductive Logic:
specific -> general
Key epistemological process of empiricists
Critical questions?
• Can we detect and interpret regularities without any theoretical basis?
• Are the choice of data gathering techniques and data gathered consequences
of a pre-existing but not explicitly acknowledged theory ?
• To what extent does the researcher influence the research object?
• How can the quality of inductively determined propositions be tested?
• Can propositions gained from a specific case be generalized?
Abduction/Retroduction
Recursive Logic:
from the specific via the general to the
specific and back to the general
Key epistemological process of critical realists
• Observation of a new (surprising) empirical phenomenon / that does not fit
expectations / a problem arises
• Search for, selection and application of a theory (a rule of interpretation)
• Analysis of the phenomenon by the use of the interpretation rule / theory
• Extension/correction/specification of the theory (rule of interpretation) to
end the surprise
Differences Between Naturalist and Constructionist Paradigms
Ontological Assumptions
• There
is one reality.
• There
are many realities.
• Reality exists in a world independent
of people.
• Reality emerges through interactive
• Reality is absolute, independent and
stable, independent of time.
• Reality is relative, time dependent
interpretation and enactment.
and changing.
• Scientific reality is only one specific
form of socially constructed reality.
Differences Between Naturalist and Constructionist Paradigms
Epistemological Assumptions
• The source of all human knowledge is empirical
observation.
• We can detect regular conjunctions between
phenomena in the varying multitude of our
observations.
• Such regularities are both a necessary and a
• The source of human knowledge is
interpretation.
• We can observe discourses and frames for
the way people talk about a particular issue,
and therefore, understand and act with
respect to that issue.
sufficient condition for causality.
• Scientific research produces generalizable truth.
• People (scientists) make sense of something.
• Scientific knowledge is cumulative and absolute.
• Truth is relative and is not generalizable.
• Scientific knowledge depends on situational
and local contexts.
Differences Between Naturalist and Constructionist Paradigms
Axiological Assumptions
• Science serves the purpose of
- detecting reality
- explaining, forecasting and controlling
phenomena in that reality.
• Science serves the purpose of
- understanding how particular
realities are socially constructed;
i.e. enacted and interactively
endowed with meaning;
- reconstructing those realities.
Differences Between Naturalist and Constructionist Paradigms
Assumptions Concerning the Research Object
• Individuals are independent actors.
Individuals interact and are embedded
in processes of structuration.
There is always a relation between
individuals and their context.
• Individuals act in a rational purposive
manner.
Individuals enact their situational
realities and collaboratively endow
them with meaning.
• Social processes are partly intended,
partly unintended, outcomes of individuals´
purposive conduct.
Social processes serve the purpose of
interactive sense-making, enactment
and structuration.
Differences Between Naturalist and Constructionist Paradigms
Assumptions Concerning the Knowledge Generation Process
• Science is objective.
• Science is subjective.
• Scientific research produces generalizable truth.
• Scientists use shared practices of
interpretation.
• Scientific knowledge is cumulative and absolute.
• Scientific methods guarantee objectivity.
• Scientific methods are bundles of
rules for „proper work.“
• Knowledge develops in a way independent of
the researcher.
• Knowledge and researchers are
tightly related to each other.
Differences Between Naturalist and Constructionist Paradigms
Assumptions Concerning the Knowledge Generation Process
• Distinction between facts and values:
A distinction between facts and values is impossible:
Values affect the choice of the research
domain and the research problem.
Values affect the choice of the research domain
and the research problem.
But measurement and data are free of
values.
Measurement and data are value-ladden.
• Scientists observe, describe and explain.
They do not help to choose ends or
determine the desirability of ends.
• Measurement does not influence the
research object/subject.
Scientists observe, describe and explain.
They are critical concerning inequalities in
articulation and legitimation potentials.
Measurement changes the observed phenomenon.
Group Work:
20 minutes
Please form different groups than last time and discuss the
following question:
What are quality criteria
- of scientific research ?
- of theories ?
Quality Criteria of Scientific Research
Naturalists/realists strive for:
* A realistic research context
* Generalizability concerning people and situations
* Precision in measurement and control of most relevant
factors of influence
What is the problem?
There is no research design what so ever,
which can reach these goals simultaneously !
Quality Criteria of Scientific Research
Interpretive researchers strive for:
* A natural setting
* Empathy concerning people and their interpretations of contexts
* Detailed descriptions of the studied phenomenon including
contextual and historical aspects
* Use of the language of people investigated
What is the problem?
There is no totally reliable way of understanding
the meanings others attribute to events!
Quality of theories ?
•
empirical validity
•
•
•
explanatory power
low number of conditional assumptions
many rigorous but failed falsification attempts
•
•
usefulness for a purpose
social agreement
Potential Solution ?
Combination of various theoretical approaches and methods
across several studies to counter-balance the different weaknesses
of each of the combinations.
Triangulation
•
Different theoretical approaches, same method
•
Same theoretical approach, different methods
•
Different theoretical approaches, different methods
Group work
30 minutes
Please form 3 groups in a way to create a different mix of members than
for the other group assignments.
Please answer the following questions :
Based on the central ideas of pragmatism,
1.
What are the similarities of pragmatism with the other discussed
approaches?
2.
What are the specific differences to each of these approaches?
3.
What advantages and disadvantages of pragmatism do you see?
Please prepare a summary statement.
Some Important Differences in the Approaches
• Aim: Explaining + predicting (instrumentalist) vs. understanding (representational) vs.
criticizing + being normative (political) vs. having a specific cognitive interest
(self-emancipation)
• Reality: One reality (empirical “facts” we observe) vs. layers of reality vs. co-constructed reality
• Knowledge creation: induction vs. deduction vs. retroduction/abduction
• Objectivity: value laden vs. value free research vs. research reflecting its presuppositions
• Research unit: methodological individualism vs. methodological holism vs. both
• Explanations: functional vs. intentional vs. self-referential
• Causality: scientific laws vs. underlying mechanisms (“semi-regularities”) vs. sense-making
• Methodology: Unified across all sciences vs. unified across social sciences vs. situational
depending on nature of research object and cognitive interest of researcher
• Quality of theories: empirical validity vs. explanatory power vs. usefulness/agreement vs.
successful consequences (change the way of thinking)
Structure of the Scientific Knowledge Production Processes
Epistemology
Ontology
Assumptions about the
nature of the experienced
world (reality)
Axiology
Assumptions about the goals
of research
Selection of
substantive (objectrelated) theory
Assumptions about our potential
to recognize the real world
(= nature of knowledge
generated)
Selection of
philosophy of science approach
Research methods
Research results
Group work:
30 minutes
Please form 3 new groups and discuss the following question:
What are the consequences of the differences in ontology, epistemology
and axiology of
- naturalism
- constructivism
- pragmatism
for the selected research approach in terms of
- chosen research objects and
- research methods used?
Take an example to illustrate.
Research Methods Used
Naturalism
• Mainly quantitative
Constructionism/Constructivism
• Mainly qualitative
manipulative/
hermeneutic/dialectic/
experimental
interpretative
• Individualistic
• Individualistic or social
Pragmatism
Both
Both
Both
Different Approaches to a Research Domain and their Effects
Example of research domain: Strategy development
Approach of a Naturalist:
•
Research object:
•
Research interest:
•
Research subjects: participating individuals (hierarchical level, intensity of
participation, satisfaction with process and outcome,...)
•
Measurement:
Organizational process (steps, duration) and its result
(strategy as a formulated document leading to coordinated
action)
What are the factors of influence on the effectiveness of
the process and the process outcomes?
How can the process and the outcome be improved?
production of quantitative data by individual interviews
(scales), protocols, deductive content analysis
-> modeling
Different Approaches to a Research Domain and their Effects
Example of research domain: Strategy development
Approach of a Constructionist:
•
Research object:
Strategy as sense giving and sense making process;
strategy as social practice
•
Research interest:
How does the ongoing “strategy”-discourse evolve
(participants, roles, initiatives,..)?
How do shared meanings, roles of participants, rituals,
objectifications develop over time?
•
Research subjects: participating individuals as members of as social entity
•
Measurement:
production of qualitative data by narrative interviews,
observation, inductive content analysis
-> reconstruction of strategy-related reality construction
Different Approaches to a Research Domain and their Effects
Example of research domain: Strategy development
• What would be the approach of a pragmatist?
Pragmatic Research Approaches
Guidance for systematic combined research
- Two-studies designs
sequential (aim: preparation of other study or explanation of
findings)
concurrent (cross-validation of findings)
- Integrated designs
integrated elaboration (qualitative analysis of quantitative data)
integrated generalization (quantitative analysis of qualitative data)
Pragmatic Research Approaches
Incommensurability of research paradigms?
philosophical problems
vs
practical benefits
Rigor in qualitative versus quantitative research?
• Reliability (internal consistency of tool, replicability of measures)
• Validity (construct, external, nomological, generalizability of results)
Vs.
• Precision
• Credibility (triangulation of investigator, methods and data)
• Transferability
Important Hints for your Doctoral Work:
Clearly indicate and defend why you have selected a certain
theory and a specific method /combination of methods
• Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of potential
approaches
• Show that you are aware of the weaknesses of your approach
• But show the advantages of your approach (conscious choice) and
why the weaknesses appear to be acceptable
Individual Homework:
What do you learn for your doctoral project from what has been
discussed so far?
How does your problem formulation change if you change the
selected philosophy of science approach?