Introduction to Classical
Chinese Philosophy
By Masayuki Sato
Lecture Seven
The Jixia Academy and
Transformation of Intellectual Miliu
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Contents of Today’s Lecture 1/2
 (1) Great transformation of the intellectual miliu
during the Warring States period
 a) Historical background: Confucianism vs.
Mohism
 b) Mencius’ involvement with civil war of the
state of Yan
 c) Ethical argumentation → analytical Discourse
Contents of Today’s Lecture 2/2
 (2) Characteristics of Jixia Thought
 a) What is “Jixia Academy 稷下學宮” ?
 b) Inquiry into practical theory for attaining the order
of a country rather than arguing the effect of morality
 c) Development of various theoretical terms
 Cf. fa 法, fen 分, gong 公, shi 勢
 d) The cases of Tian Pian 田駢, Shen Dao 慎到 and
Zou Yan 驟衍
 (3) The Significance of the Jixia thought in the
context of Chinese Intellectual thought
Confucianism vs. Mohists
 Common characteristics
 Exaltation of the worthy
 Welfare of people
 Anti-aggressive war
 The overwhelming power of anthropomorphic
concept of Heaven
 Importance of worship for Heaven and ancestral
spirit
Confucianism vs. Mohists
 Contradiction
 Pro-music vs. Anti-music
 Pro-funerals vs. Anti-funerals
 Different level of love vs. equal love to all
 Acceptance of fate vs. reject of fate
 Definition of the term “li 利”
 →Profit (Mencius) vs. Welfare of people
A Reason of Advent of Analytical Discourse
 A plausible reason to explain why ethical discourse yielded
to analytical discourse is that the confrontation between
Confucians and Mohists about policy making caused,
ironically, a deterioration in the living conditions of the
ruled people. In the state of Yan, chief minister Zi Zhi 子
之was placed on the throne of Yan by King Kuai 燕王噲
because King Kuai believed that Zi Zhi was a sage. To go
by evidence in the Hanfeizi, King Kuai seemed to practise
Mohist policies. Strong opposition to Zi Zhi’s
enthronement caused a devastating civil war. The Shiji
maintains that Mencius, as visiting chancellor, persuaded
the Qi king to “punish” (fa 伐) Yan.
Qi’s Invasion into Yan and
Mencius’ subtle “role”
 In the Mencius, although the description is much
milder, we can read the text as saying that
Mencius certainly gave the Qi court a positive
answer about whether Qi could attack Yan or not.
Consequently, the army of Qi marched on the
capital of Yan. Reflecting on these historical facts,
Mencius’ positive answer concerning Qi’s
military intervention in the civil war in Yan might
have been prompted by his antipathy towards the
predominant control by Mohists over the court of
Yan.
The Warring States (ca. 260 BCE )
齊國
The State of Qi
（Yellow color）
臨淄
The Capital Linzi
Cf.燕國
The State of Yan
（pink color）
Wiki Philg88
Tian family-ruled Qi and
Jixia Academy
 In the eyes of students of intellectual history, one
of the main characteristics of the 150 year history
of Qi under the rule of the Tian family is Qi’s
unprecedented commitment to intellectual activity
and its contribution to the later development of
Chinese thought.
 This academic activity is known as“the Jixia
Academy”(Jixia zhi xue 稷下之學).
The Rise and Fall of the Jixia Academy
 齊太公
Tian He, the founder of Tian-Qi
dynasty(？─384 BCE)
 → 齊侯剡→ 齊桓公→ 齊威王 King Wei →
development
and heyday
 齊宣王 King Xuan (r. 319-301 BCE)
 Cf. Duke Xiao of Qin (r.361 BC - 338 BCE)
perish
 齊湣王 King Min (killed in military defeat)
 齊襄王 King Xiang (restoration)
restoration
 齊王建 The Last King Jian
The History of Jixia Academy
 The intellectual activity of the Jixia can be
divided into four stages:
 i) from the origin to the reign of King Wei;
 ii) from the reign of King Xuan to that of the
King Min;
 iii) the last period of King Min;
 iv) from King Xiang to the Last King Jian.
Jixia Academy
 The reason for naming the academic activity
“Jixia”is uncertain. One plausible explanation is
that the quarter in which the masters lived was
beside the“Gate of Ji (稷門), which was located
on the western or southern side of the Qi capital
Linzi 臨淄.
 There are not any personal names of thinkers
associated with the establishment of Jixia
Academy
 cf. Academy of Plato, Lykeion of Aristotle
The Jixia Academy 稷下
 The Jixia Academy 稷下 was established in the
state of Qi 齊. It witnessed its heyday during the
reign of King Xuan 齊宣王 (r. 319-301).
Prominent masters, like Zou Yan 鄒衍, Chunyu
Kun 淳于髡, Tian Pian 田駢, Jiezi 接子, Shen
Dao 慎到 or Huan Yuan 環淵 were bestowed the
title of senior grand master (shang dafu 上大夫).
A Description of the Prosper of the Jixia
Academy by Sima Qian’s
《史記》：「宣王喜文學遊說之
士，自鄒衍、淳于髡、田駢、接
輿、慎到、環淵之徒七十六人，
皆賜列第，為上大夫，不治而議
論。是以齊稷下學士復盛，且數
百千人……」。
A Description of the Prosper of the Jixia
Academy by Sima Qian
 King Xuan of Qi was fond of scholars of classics and
advocators/persuaders of statecraft and diplomacy.
There were seventy-six masters, and among them
Zou Yan, Chunyu Kun, Tian Pian, Jie Yu, Shen Dao
and Huan Yuan, who were all ranked as high as the
Upper Officer at the Qi court. They did not [need to]
involve themselves in governing the state; all they
had to do was take part in discussions. That was
why the activity of the masters at the Jixia became
prosperous again. The population of the Academy
reached numbers from the hundreds up to the
thousands.
Generous Treatment of Scholars
 Hundreds of intellectuals lived in this area.
Among them, the most prominent scholars were
called “master”(xiansheng 先生) and their rank
was equivalent to that of a higher-ranking or grand
officer at the Qi court (shangdaifu 上大夫). They
received very generous stipends and were
exempted from daily administrative tasks.
Role of the Jixia Masters
 《史記》：「宣王喜文學遊說之士，自鄒衍、
淳于髡、田駢、接輿、慎到、環淵之徒七十六
人，皆賜列第，為上大夫，不治而議論。是以
齊稷下學士復盛，且數百千人……」。
Role of the Jixia Masters
 《史記》：「宣王喜文學遊說之士，自鄒衍、
淳于髡、田駢、接輿、慎到、環淵之徒七十六
人，皆賜列第，為上大夫，不治而議論。是以
齊稷下學士復盛，且數百千人……」。
 They did not [need to] involve themselves in
governing the state; all they had to do was
take part in discussions.
Prominent Jixia Masters
 Early half of King Xuan period (319-310 BC)
 Song Xing 宋銒
 Mencius 孟子
 Latter half of King Xuan period (310-300 BC)
 Tian Pian 田駢
 Shen Dao 慎到
 Zou Yan 驟衍
 Post King Min Period (274BC-)
 Xunzi 荀子
The Key Topic of the Jixia’s discussions:
Order and Disorder (of a state/society)
 The retirement of Mencius from the fray was
followed by the rise of prominent thinkers who,
Sima Qian wrote:
 自騶衍[...]騶奭之徒，各著書言治亂之事，
以干事主，豈可勝道哉！
The Key Topic of the Jixia’s discussions:
Order and Disorder (of a state/society)
 The retirement of Mencius from the fray was
followed by the rise of prominent thinkers who,
Sima Qian wrote:
 自騶衍[...]騶奭之徒，各著書言治亂之事，
以干事主，豈可勝道哉！
 “published their opinion on the matter of order and
disorder (of a state).
Key Topics (2) : The Way in Tian Pian’s
dialogue with King of Qi (King Xuan?)
 田駢以道術說齊[王]。齊王應之曰：寡人所有
者齊國也，願聞齊國之政。田駢對曰：臣之言
，無政而可以得政。譬之若材木，無材而可以
得材。願王之自取齊國之政也。駢猶淺言之也
，博言之，豈獨齊國之政哉？變化應求而皆有
章，因性任物而莫不宜當。
Key Topics (2) : The Way in Tian Pian’s
dialogue with King of Qi (King Xuan?)
 Tian Pian persuaded the Qi king with the method
of the Way. The king of Qi commented on [Tian
Pian’s theory]. He said:“The area I possess is the
state of Qi. I hope to hear about the rule of Qi.”
 Tian Pian answered:“My words enable you to
attain [orderly] government without involving
yourself in your government. It is as if you could
obtain timber out of nothing.
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Key Topics (2) : The Way in Tian Pian’s
dialogue with King of Qi (King Xuan?)
 I hope that you will be able to obtain [orderly]
government of Qi spontaneously. I will explain [the
essence of my theory] with plain examples or with
a broad array of facts [I collected]. How can I limit
my theory to explaining the government of the
state of Qi! Every process of transformation which
responds to [environmental] demands has its
manifestation. If one is in accordance with the
natural essence [of things] and allows these things
to work spontaneously for him, nothing is attained
inappropriately.
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A Description on the Thought of Peng
Meng, Tian Pian, and Shen Dao
 彭蒙、田駢、慎到聞其風而說之。齊萬物
以為首，曰：「天能覆之而不能載之，地
能載之而不能覆之，大道能包之而不能辯
之。」知萬物皆有所可，有所不可。
 （慎到）故曰：「選則不遍，教則不至，
道則無遺者矣。」是故慎到，棄知去己，
而緣不得已，泠汰於物以為道理，曰：「
知不知，將薄知而後鄰傷之者也。」謑髁
無任而笑天下之尚賢也。
A Description on the Thought of Peng
Meng, Tian Pian, and Shen Dao
 They (Peng Meng, Tian Pian, and Shen Dao) considered
that the first thing for them to do was to adjust the
controversies about different things. They said, “Heaven
can cover, but it cannot sustain; Earth can contain, but it
cannot cover. The Great Dao embraces all things, but It
does not discriminate between them.” They knew that all
things have what they can do and what they cannot do.
Hence it is said, “If you select, you do not reach all; if you
teach some things, you must omit the others; but the
Dao neglects none.”
 (The “Tianxia” Chapter, The Book of Zhuangzi,
 trans. by J. Legge)
Shen Dao in The Zhuangzi
 Therefore, Shen Dao discarded his knowledge
and also all thought of himself, acting only where
he had no alternative, and pursued it as his
course to be indifferent and pure in his dealings
with others. He said that the best knowledge was
to have no knowledge, and that if we had a little
knowledge it was likely to prove a dangerous
thing. Conscious of his unfitness, he undertook
no charge, and laughed at those who valued
ability and virtue.
 (The “Tianxia” Chapter, The Book of Zhuangzi,
 trans. by J. Legge)
A Search for the “Principle” behind
Phenomena : Jixia Master Tian Pian 田駢
 田子讀書，曰：「堯時太平。」宋子曰：「聖人
之治以致此乎？」彭蒙在側，越次答曰：聖法之
治以至（致）此，非聖人之治也。」宋子曰：「
聖人與聖法，何以異？」彭蒙曰：「子之亂名甚
矣！聖人者自己出也。理出于己，己非理也；己
能出理，理非己也。故聖人之治，獨治者也；聖
法之治，則無不治也。此萬物之利，唯聖人能該
之。」宋子猶或，質于田子。田子曰：「蒙之言
然。」（《尹文子‧卷上》）
A Search for the “Principle” behind
Phenomena : Jixia Master Tian Pian 田駢
 Master Tian was reciting a book. The Master Tian said: “It




was during the reign of Sage Ruler Yao that the peace of the
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world has been fully attained.”
Master Song asked Master Tian: “Can I call this ‘the rule by
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the Sage kings’?”
Peng Meng was sitting beside them, but disregared the his
(lower position) and dared to say : “You should say that it
was the rule of the sage law, not the rule of the Sage kings.”
Master Song said: “What is the difference between the rule of
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principle and Sage kings？”
Peng Meng said: “It is you who confuse the accordance
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between name and actuality! ”
A Search for the “Principle” behind
Phenomena : Jixia Master Tian Pian 田駢
 (Peng Meng contined:) “The sage law comes from the
supreme principle. If [one argues that] such supreme principle
comes out from inside oneself, a person is not such principle.
By the same token, that which generates supreme principle
must not be such a thing as a human individual. Thus, the rule
of the Sage kings can only be attainable on individual case;
the rule of sage law covers every cases. Only sage kings can
understand with their insights that such a way (by the rule of
supreme principle) can bring profits to people and things of
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the world.”
 The Master Song was still bewildered so that he asked Master
Tian. Mater Tian answered “The words of Meng is right.”
 (The Book of Master Ying Wen, vol. I) National Taiwan University Masayuki Sato
A Search for the “Principle” behind
Phenomena : Jixia Master Tian Pian 田駢
 (Peng Meng contined:) “The sage law comes from the
supreme principle. If [one argues that] such supreme principle
comes out from inside oneself, a person is not such principle.
By the same token, that which generates supreme principle
must not be such a thing as a human individual. Thus, the
rule of the Sage kings can only be attainable on individual
case; the rule of sage law covers every cases. Only sage
kings can understand with their insights that such a way (by
the rule of supreme principle) can bring profits to people and
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things of the world.”
 The Master Song was still bewildered so that he asked Master
Tian. Mater Tian answered “The words of Meng is right.”
 (The Book of Master Ying Wen, vol. I) National Taiwan University Masayuki Sato
Four “Nobel prize winner”
Shen Dao 慎到
 Shen Dao was one of the most prominent socio-
political thinkers of the human intellectual history.
He completely transformed the actual state of
argumentation on socio-political issue in the history
of early Chinese thought. After Shen Dao, moral
issue oriented socio-political discourse changed
into a more objective and analytic one. Shen Dao’s
ideas which caused a “paradigm shift” in the sociopolitical discourse in early Chinese intellectual
history which can be divided into the following
three points:
Four “Nobel prize winner”
Shen Dao 慎到
 (1) Shen Dao has observed that the source of political
authority comes from authoritative power itself, not
very much from the virtue or wisdom of a ruler.
 (2) He argued that it would be simply nonsense to
advocate the necessary of moral virtue, e.g., one’s
loyalty to a state or a lord, to maintain the sociopolitical order of a country.
Shen Dao (1): Paradigm shift of the
traditional value of political idea
 The negation of idea of loyalty as the Source of
Political Authority
 One cannot blame the demise of a country solely
on a lord himself; one cannot attribute its
accomplishment of order only to the power of a
single person. Whether a country will become
orderly or disorderly is decided by appointing the
worthy to [the proper] position in its government,
not by seeking their loyalty to their lord.
Shen Dao (1): Paradigm shift of the
traditional value of political idea
 The negation of idea of loyalty as the Source of
Political Authority
 亡國之君，非一人之罪也；治國之君，非一人之
力。將治亂，在乎賢使任職，而不在於忠也。
 One cannot blame the demise of a country solely
on a lord himself; one cannot attribute its
accomplishment of order only to the power of a
single person. Whether a country will become
orderly or disorderly is decided by appointing the
worthy to [the proper] position in its government,
not by seeking their loyalty to their lord.
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Shen Dao (1): Paradigm shift of the
traditional value of political idea
 The negation of
as the Source of
Political Authority
 亡國之君，非一人之罪也；治國之君，非一人之
力。將治亂，在乎賢使任職，而不在於忠也。
 One cannot blame the demise of a country solely
on a lord himself; one cannot attribute its
accomplishment of order only to the power of a
single person. Whether a country will become
orderly or disorderly is decided by appointing the
worthy to [the proper] position in its government,
not by seeking their loyalty to their lord.
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The Political dynamism by the concept of
Loyalty in the traditional ethical discourse
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ruler
ministers
A ruler practice his virtue of loyalty
and trustworthy
People
come to
support him
people
Unification of
the World !
Unification of
the World !
Shen Dao’s Theory
for establishing a stable state
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ruler
Establishment of the state institution
which embody fair and right distribution
of resource to the all member of a society
Minister and
People work for
their state for
themselves
ministers
people
Attainment of Sociopolitical Stability !
Attainment of Sociopolitical Stability !
Four “Nobel prize winner”
Shen Dao 慎到
 (3) He provided a major conceptual tools for
analyzing the rise and fall of a state:
 shi 勢 (authoritative power)
 fen 分(division and distribution)
 fa 法 (law)
 gong 公 (equality and fairness—now often
translated as “public”)
Shen Dao (1):
The Source of Political Authority
 慎子曰：“飛龍乘雲，騰蛇遊霧，雲罷
霧霽，而龍蛇與螾螘同矣，則失其所乘
也。賢人而詘於不肖者，則權輕位卑也
；不肖而能服於賢者，則權重位尊也。
堯為匹夫不能治三人，而桀為天子能亂
天下，吾以此知勢位之足恃，而賢智之
不足慕也。
 Nanshi chapter
Shen Dao (1):
The Source of Political Authority
 The Master Shen said: “A flying dragon is riding on clouds, a
jumping serpent monster is wandering in mist. If the clouds
disappear and the mist vanishes, these dragon and serpent
monster is no less than earthworms. That is because they
have lost their vehicle. In the case that a wise man’s position
is humble, his opinion is excluded even by a fool. In contrast,
the position of a fool is sufficiently high, he can even
subjugate a wise man. The Sage rulers such as Yao and
Shun cannot subjugate no more three people, if they are
commoner, while the tyrants such as Jie and Zhou can
disturb entire the world. From these facts, I come to know
that it is power and authority, not wisdom and erudite, that a
ruler must rely on.
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Shen Dao (2): The Distinction and
Distribution of Social Status and Role
 一兔走街，百人逐之；非一兔足為
百人分也，由未定分也。分未定，
堯且屈力而況眾人乎？積兔滿市，
過者不顧；非不欲兔也，分已定矣
，人雖鄙不爭。故治天下及國在乎
定分而已矣。
Shen Dao (2): The Distinction and
Distribution of Social Status and Role
 If one rabbit runs through a town street, a
hundred people chase it. This is not because
one rabbit can be shared by one hundred
people, but because its distribution has not
been determined. As long as the distribution
has not been determined, then even such a
sage king as Yao would exhaust his strength
[to get it]. How much more the common
people!
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Shen Dao (2): The Distinction and
Distribution of Social Status and Role
 If piles of rabbits fill the market places, but
passers-by take no interest in them, that is
not because they do not desire them, but
because their distribution has already been
determined. If the distribution has already
been determined, even the basest of men will
not fight for it. Therefore, the way to control
All-under-Heaven and the country lies solely
in determining distribution!
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Shen Dao (3): The Theory of Law
法者，所以齊天下之動，至公大
定之制也。故智者不得越法而肆
謀，辯者不得越法而肆議，士不
得背法而有名，臣不得背法而有
功。
Shen Dao (3): The Theory of Law
 The [essential function of the] law is to treat
equally the behaviors of the people of the world,
and lays a foundation for the most fair and stable
[socio-political] institution. Thus, both the advices
by wise men, arguments by sophists cannot
exceed the sphere of what law allows. Also,
neither officer-aspirants or ministers are allowed to
obtain the fame or credit, if their deeds do not
match what law allows.
 (The Shenzi Fragments)
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Zou Yan 驟 (鄒) 衍: The Founder of the
theory of Dynamism and Change
 The Founder of the theory of Ying-Yang 陰陽
and Wuxing 五行
 Analogical exploration of things in ALL space
and time from visible to invisible:
 Theorization of rise and fall of dynastic history
with that of five virtues
 Cf. a theoretical role for foretelling “next.”
 “The real founder of all Chinese scientific
thought.” (Joseph Needham)
The Image of Yin-Yang
The Five Elements
Wood
Water
Fire
Metal
Soil
The Five Elements

generative
relationship
overcoming
relationship
Zou Yan
 He saw that the rulers were becoming ever more
dissolute and incapable of valuing virtue. ... So he
examined deeply into the phenomena of the increase
and decrease of the Yin and the Yang, and wrote
essays totaling more than 100,000 words about their
strange permutations, and about the cycles of the
great sages from beginning to end. His sayings were
vast and far-reaching, and not in accord with the
accepted beliefs of the classics. First he had to
examine small objects, and from these he drew
conclusions about large ones, until he reached what
was without limit.
Zou Yan
 First he spoke about modern times, and from this he
went back to the time of the Emperor Huang. The
scholars all studied his arts. ... He began by
classifying China's notable mountains, great rivers
and connecting valleys; its birds and beasts; the
fruitfulness of its water and soils, and its rare
products; and from this extended his survey to what
is beyond the seas, and men are unable to observe.
Then starting from the time of the separation of the
Heavens and the Earth, and coming down, he made
citations of the revolutions and transmutations of the
Five Powers (Virtues), arranging them until each
found its proper place and was confirmed (by
history).
Zou Yan
 (Zou Yan) maintained that what the
Confucians called the "Middle Kingdom" (i.e.
China) holds a place in the whole world of but
one part in eighty-one. … Princes, dukes and
great officials, when they first witnessed his
arts, fearfully transformed themselves, but
later were unable to practice them.
 (“Bibliographies of Mencius and Xun Qing”,
The Historical Record of Sima Qian,
 Trans. By J. Needham)
Needham, Joseph. 1978. The Shorter Science and
Civilisation in China. Colin A. Ronan, ed. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press. pp.142-143
The concept of Change
(Bian-hua 變化)
 The theorization of the ying-yang concept, and the
five elements stimulated the analysis into “change”
or “transformation” per se. Many aspects of human
and environmental phenomena were to be
explained by the adoption of the concept of change.
In this sense, Zou Yan proposed his theory of
dynastic transition from the view of change, the
Zhuangzi 莊子 described the overwhelming power
of change in which human being no more than
minute. Xunzi 荀子 partly accepted but drastically
reversed Zhuangzi’s view, argued that a human can
transform her/himself into an ethical being.
The Significance of the Jixia thought in
the context of Chinese Intellectual thought
 (1) Beyond the judgment on one ruler’s virtue
(though they did not completely deny the value of
ethical principles), mechanisms on how a sociopolitical order can be maintained, has become topics
of their intellectual activity. The Jixia scholars probed
these issues with more analytical attitude.
 (2) Various theoretical and conceptual terms have
been invented to discuss socio-political issues.
 (3) From this theoretical ground for analyzing sociopolitical dynamism, rise and fall of a dynasties in
future, too, were predicted analogically.
The Significance of the Jixia thought in the
context of Chinese Intellectual thought
Ethics or virtues per se have become no more
than one of many conditions for attaining ideal
socio-political order and obtaining the support or
obedience from people toward their ruler.
Transformation of argumentative mode of
Chinese Philosophy has been proceeded as :
“Ethical Discourse”
▼
Jixia Masters
▼
“Analytical Discourse”
Questions and further discussions
 (1) What kind of element do you think, e.g.
historical, intellectuals, and others could cause
such a great intellectual transformation?
 (2) Besides the treatment of ethical matters, what
kind of elements can be taken as fundamental
difference between Mohist-Mencius line of
discourse and the that of the Jixia masters?
 (3) Which thinkers do you think influenced the
following development of thought, or the formation
of “the mode of Chinese thinking” most
profoundly: Tian Pian, Shen Dao and Zou Yan,
and why?
Introduction to Classical
Chinese Philosophy
Thank you very much!
Lecture Seven
The Jixia Academy and
Transformation of Intellectual Miliu
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宣王喜文學遊說之士…
且數百千人
司馬遷《史記》
自騶衍…豈可勝道哉！
司馬遷《史記．卷七四．孟子荀卿列傳》
田駢以道術說齊[王]…
因性任物而莫不宜當。
劉安《淮南子‧道應訓》
頁24-25
National Taiwan University Masayuki Sato
頁26-27
This work comes from Chinese Text Project, http://ctext.org/zhuangzi/tianxia/ens, edited by Donald Sturgeon, English translated by James Legge, and
used in accordance with the FAQ of Chinese Text Project by GET
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田子讀書…「蒙之言
然。」
尹文《尹文子‧卷上》
頁29-30
National Taiwan University Masayuki Sato
亡國之君…而不在於忠
也。
慎到《慎子．知忠》
頁34-35
National Taiwan University Masayuki Sato
National Taiwan University Masayuki Sato
National Taiwan University Masayuki Sato
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慎子曰：「飛龍乘雲…
而賢智之不足慕也。
韓非子《韓非子·難勢》
頁44
National Taiwan University Masayuki Sato
一兔走街…故治天下及
國在乎定分而已矣。
慎到《慎子‧逸聞》
頁46-47
National Taiwan University Masayuki Sato
法者，所以齊天下之
動…臣不得背法而有功。
慎到《慎子‧逸聞》
頁49
National Taiwan University Masayuki Sato
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Wiki user 用心閣
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頁56
Needham, Joseph. 1978. The Shorter Science and Civilisation in China.
Colin A. Ronan, ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp.142-143