Clicker Question:
The age of a cluster can be found by:
A: Looking at its velocity through the galaxy.
B: Determining the turnoff point from the main sequence.
C: Counting the number of stars in the cluster
D: Determining how fast it is expanding
Clicker Question:
Why do globular clusters contain stars with
fewer metals (heavy elements) compared to
open clusters?
A: Open clusters have formed later in the evolution of the
universe after considerably more processing
B: Metals are gradually destroyed in globular clusters.
C: Metals are blown out of globular clusters during supernova
explosions
D: Metals spontaneously decay to lighter elements during the
10 billion year age of the globular cluster.
An early gamma ray-burst
Vela satellite
A Gamma Ray Burst Sampler
Great debate: 1967-1997
Bepposax Satellite
GRBM:
40-600 keV
WFC: 2-30
keV
NFI: 2-10
keV
X-Ray Afterglow from GRB 971214
t=6.5 hrs
t=12.5 hrs
t=54 hrs
Optical Afterglow from GRB 971214
Keck
Images
2 days
2 months
Host
HST Image
Uh-oh
GRBs are a type of Supernova
“Hypernova”
●
Peak toward low end of gamma-ray, complex gamma-ray light curves
●
Often have bright afterglows
●
Evidence for a relativistic explosion
●
Energy required of ~ 1053 ergs (isotropic)
●
Associated with regions of star formation in distant galaxies (out to
edge of observable universe)
●
Sometimes obscured by dust
●
Plus …
Example Hypernova: 1998bw
Long GRBs clearly connected to Supernovae
Hjorth et al 2003
Final States of a Star
1. White Dwarf
If initial star mass < 8 MSun or so
No Event + PN
2. Neutron Star
If initial mass > 8 MSun and < 25 MSun
Supernova +
ejecta
3. Black Hole
If initial mass > 25 MSun
GRB + Hypernova
+ ejecta
Clicker Question:
What is the heaviest element produced by
steady fusion in the core of a massive star?
A: Hydrogen
B: Carbon
C: Iron
D: Uranium
Clicker Question:
All of the following atoms have a total of 4
nucleons (protons or neutrons). Which of the
following has the smallest mass?
A: 4 hydrogen atoms
B: 2 deuterium atoms
C: 1 tritium atom and 1 hydrogen atom
D: 1 Helium atom
E: None of the above, they all have the same total mass
WR104 - Looking Down the Barrel
of a GRB system 8000 lt-years from us
Final States of a Star
1. White Dwarf
If initial star mass < 8 MSun or so.
(and remember: Maximum WD mass is 1.4 MSun , radius is
about that of the Earth)
2. Neutron Star
If initial mass > 8 MSun and < 25 MSun .
3. Black Hole
If initial mass > 25 MSun .
Pulsars
Discovery of LGM1 by Jocelyn Bell and Tony Hewish (Cambridge)
in 1967. Nobel Prize to Hewish in 1974.
Pulse periods observed from 0.001 sec to 10 seconds - DEMO
Explanation: "beamed" radiation from rapidly spinning neutron star.
Usually neutron stars are pulsars for 107 years after supernova.
The Crab Pulsar
The Crab Pulsar
Chandra
X-ray
image
On
Off
The Crab Pulsar
Chandra
X-ray
image
On
Off
Neutron Stars
Leftover core from Type II supernova
- a tightly packed ball of neutrons.
Diameter: 20 km only!
Mass: 1.4 - 3(?) MSun
Density: 1014 g / cm3 !
1 teaspoon = 1000 great pyramids
Surface gravity: 1012 higher
Escape velocity: 0.5c
Rotation rate: few to many times
per second!!!
Magnetic field: 1012 x Earth's!
A neutron star over the Sandias?
General Relativistic deflection of light
More than half the
surface is visible at any
one time!
Each square is 30 degrees x 30 degrees
An Isolated Neutron Star
T ~ 2 million K
Size ~ 30 km
The Lighthouse model of a pulsar
Pulsars are incredibly accurate clocks!
Example: period of the first discovered "millisecond pulsar" is:
P = 0.00155780644887275 sec
It is slowing down at a rate of
1.051054 x 10 -19 sec/sec
The slowing-down rate is slowing down at a
rate of:
0.98 x 10 -31 /sec
Multi-wavelength observations of Pulsars
Pulsar Exotica
Binary pulsars: two pulsars in orbit around
each other.
Einstein predicted that binary orbits should
"decay", i.e. the masses would spiral in
towards each other, losing energy through
"gravitational radiation". Confirmed by
binary pulsar.
Curve: prediction of
decaying orbit. Points:
measurements.
Planets around pulsars: A pulsar was found in 1992 to
have three planets! Masses about 3 MEarth, 1 MEarth, and
1 MMoon !
year
Millisecond pulsars: periods of 1 to a few msec. Probably accreted
matter from a binary companion that made it spin faster.
Gamma-ray Bursts: some pulsars produce bursts of gamma-rays,
called Soft Gamma-Ray Repeaters or SGRs
Time history of the 4 confirmed SGRs:
Woods & Thompson 2004
Soft Gamma-Ray Repeaters
"
Eiso ~ a few1044 erg in gamma-rays
Where does this energy come
from?
X-ray image
- Accretion? No sign of a disk
- Rotation? Not enough energy available
- Magnetic fields? Yes
Clicker Question:
What is our basic model for a pulsar?
A: a rotating white dwarf
B: a rotating neutron star
C: a rotating black hole
D: an oscillating star
Clicker Question:
Which of the following is true about a binary
pulsar system?
A: It will last forever.
B: They can only be found in star forming regions
C: The total mass of the two pulsars must be more
than 10 solar masses.
D: Each of the pulsars was produced by a massive
star that exploded in a Supernova event.
NS Merger Model for short GRBs
Mean redshift ~ 0.25 for short hard bursts (SHB)
No supernova association expected
SHBs often found at outskirts of galaxy (implies large
peculiar velocities)
SHBs found in
- Elliptical galaxies
- galaxies with low star
formation rates
Black Holes
A stellar mass black hole accreting material from a companion star
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Black Holes and General Relativity
General Relativity: Einstein's description of gravity (extension
of Newton's). Published in 1915. It begins with:
The Equivalence Principle
Let's go through the following series of thought experiments and
arguments:
1) Imagine you are far from any source of gravity, in free space,
weightless. If you shine a light or throw a ball, it will move in a
straight line.
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2. If you are in freefall, you are also
weightless. Einstein says these are
equivalent. So in freefall, the light and
the ball also travel in straight lines.
3. Now imagine two people in freefall on
Earth, passing a ball back and forth.
From their perspective, they pass the ball
in a straight line. From a stationary
perspective, the ball follows a curved
path. So will a flashlight beam, but
curvature of light path is small because
light is fast (but not infinitely so).
The different perspectives are called
frames of reference.
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4. Gravity and acceleration are equivalent. An apple falling in
Earth's gravity is the same as one falling in an elevator accelerating
upwards, in free space.
5. All effects you would observe by being in an accelerated frame
of reference you would also observe when under the influence of
gravity.
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Examples:
1) Bending of light. If light travels in straight lines in free space, then
gravity causes light to follow curved paths.
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Observed! In 1919 eclipse by Eddington
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Gravitational lensing of a single background quasar into 4 objects
1413+117 the
“cloverleaf” quasar
A ‘quad’ lens
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Gravitational lensing. The gravity of a foreground cluster of
galaxies distorts the images of background galaxies into arc shapes.
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Saturn-mass
black hole
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Clicker Question:
Eddington and his team were able to see a
star appear from behind the sun sooner
than expected during the 1919 solar
eclipse due to:
A: bending of the light by heat waves from the sun
B: bending of the light due to the mass of the sun
C: acceleration of the light to higher speeds by the sun
D: bending of the light by strong magnetic fields
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Clicker Question:
Einstein’s equivalence principle states that:
A: Mass and Energy are related
B: All clocks appear to record time at the same rate regardless
of how fast they move.
C: Time and Money are related
D: An observer cannot distinguish between an accelerating
frame due to motion or due to gravity.
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2. Gravitational Redshift
later, speed > 0
light received when
elevator receding at
some speed.
Consider accelerating elevator in
free space (no gravity).
time zero, speed=0
light emitted when
elevator at rest.
Received light has longer wavelength (or shorter frequency) because
of Doppler Shift ("redshift"). Gravity must have same effect! Verified
in Pound-Rebka experiment.
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3. Gravitational Time Dilation
A photon moving upwards in gravity is redshifted.
Since
 1
T
the photon's period gets longer. Observer 1
will measure a longer period than Observer 2.
So they disagree on time intervals. Observer 1
would say that Observer 2's clock runs slow!
1
2
All these effects are unnoticeable in our daily experience!
They are tiny in Earth’s gravity, but large in a black hole’s.
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Escape Velocity
Velocity needed to escape the gravitational pull of an object.
vesc =
2GM
R
Escape velocity from Earth's surface is 11 km/sec.
If Earth were crushed down to 1 cm size, escape velocity
would be speed of light. Then nothing, including light, could
escape Earth.
This special radius, for a particular object, is called the
Schwarzschild Radius, RS.
RS  M.
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Black Holes
If core with about 3 MSun or more collapses, not even neutron
pressure can stop it (total mass of star about 25 MSun).
Core collapses to a point, a "singularity".
Gravity is so strong that nothing can escape, not even light => black hole.
Schwarzschild radius for Earth is 1 cm. For a 3 MSun object, it’s 9 km.
48
Clicker Question:
X-rays coming from the surface of a neutron
star observed at Earth are shifted to:
A: lower energies.
B: higher energies.
C: the energy doesn’t change.
D: lower speeds.
49
Clicker Question:
Suppose we start with two atomic
clocks and take one up a high
mountain for a week. Which is true?
A: The two clocks will show the same amount of
time has passed.
B: The mountain clock will be slightly ahead
(fast)
C: The mountain clock will be slightly behind
(slow)
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Event horizon: imaginary sphere around object with radius equal to
Schwarzschild radius.
Event horizon
Schwarzschild Radius
Anything crossing over to inside the event horizon, including light,
is trapped. We can know nothing more about it after it does so.
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Black hole achieves this by severely curving space. According to Einstein's
General Relativity, all masses curve space. Gravity and space curvature are
equivalent.
Like a rubber sheet, but in three dimensions, curvature dictates how all
objects, including light, move when close to a mass.
52
Curvature at event horizon is so great that space "folds in on itself", i.e. anything
crossing it is trapped.
53
Approaching a Black Hole:
54
Circling a Black Hole at the Photon Sphere:
55
Effects around Black Holes
1) Enormous tidal forces.
2) Gravitational redshift. Example, blue
light emitted just outside event horizon
may appear red to distant observer.
3) Time dilation. Clock just outside
event horizon appears to run slow to a
distant observer. At event horizon, clock
appears to stop.
56
Black Holes have no Hair
Properties of a black hole:
- Mass
- Spin (angular momentum)
- Charge (tends to be zero)
57
Black Holes can have
impact on their
environments
58
Do Black Holes Really Exist? Good
Candidate: Cygnus X-1
- Binary system: 30 MSun star with unseen companion.
- Binary orbit => companion > 7 MSun.
- X-rays => million degree gas falling into black hole.
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Clicker Question:
The escape velocity for the Earth is normally 11
km/s, what would the escape velocity be from a
black hole the same mass as the Earth if you
launched a rocket from a platform 6400 km
above the event horizon (1 Earth radii):
A: 22 km/s
B: 11 km/s
C: 6 km/s
D: 3 km/s
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Clicker Question:
What is the escape velocity at the Event
Horizon of a 100 solar mass black hole?
A: 300,000 km/s
B: 3,000,000 km/s
C: 30,000,000 km/s
D: 300,000,000 km/s
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Supermassive (3 million solar mass) Black Hole at the
Galactic Center
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Shadow of a Black Hole
63
1 kpc
6464
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Supermassive Binary Black Holes
3C 75
7 kpc separation
VLA image of 3C 75 at 6 cm (Owen et al. 1985)
0402+379
7 pc separation
VLBA image at 2 cm (Rodriguez et al. 2006)
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Gravitational Waves
LIGO (Laser Interferometric Gravity-Wave Observatory)
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