 Sentences vary in type, structure and length.
Syntax SYNTAX SYNTAX
 Sentences convey complex relationships between ideas.
 Recognizing clear, forceful, well-constructed sentences is a measure of one’s “ability to think.”
– “to analyze.”
 Authors use sentences to convey intent and meaning through:
– Tone Diction
– Syntax Imagery
1

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Length usually determines complexity of ideas.
Educated, literate audiences will require longer sentences -- but remember: profound ideas can be expressed in
“pithy” sentences.”
“I think, therefore I am.”
 Look for sentences markedly different from the average
 Protracted sentences: short sentence in certain places for emphasis.
2

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Rhetorical Purposes are to structure passages with certain length sentences – whether they be long or short sentences.
Too many long sentences may mean the writer cannot distinguish what is important.
Shorter sentences make the point quicker and with considerable force.
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Blunt closing sentences produce a jolt to the reader.
Juxtaposing a tight, terse sentence against a long one leaves marks on the reader’s conscience.
Long and short sentences are both necessary to convey ideas, but when writing an essay, look for those that are markedly different from the average.
3

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The order of sentence arrangement affects a reader’s response to a sentence.
The end of a sentence is the most important part of a sentence. The reader’s mind comes to a stop at the end due to punctuation.
Sometimes important ideas can go at the beginning.
 The middle of sentences is usually reserved for less important ideas.
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Periodic sentences save important ideas until the end:
When the poor worker is allowed to work at half price and the good worker is forced to work for an inadequate wage, hardly sufficient to support a family, a false, unnatural, and destructive economic system develops. (s & v at the end and idea is delayed until the end.
4

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Sometimes the main idea can be delayed. The main clause is introduced early , but its completion is postponed by modifiers and other interrupting material:
The tall shapely trees, their branches withered and their trunks bent inward toward the slope of the mountain, showed the effects of raging winds.
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Most English sentences are loose but prose with only periodic sentences are difficult to read -combining periodic and loose sentences give the most efficient means of communication of ideas.
Climatic emphasis at the end by using periodic sentence.
He suddenly saw an empty, garbage-strewn lot instead of the familiar white house as he steered his Honda into the driveway.
5

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The loose sentence gives the main idea or its
“secret” at the start.
It follows the subjectverb-object pattern of the
English language. He used a cell phone.
An endless progression of loose sentences is monotonous.
One gives a climatic ending by using periodic sentences after loose sentences.
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An endless progression of periodic sentences are difficult to read.
A balance is the best in literature.
How sentence parts are arranged help convey meaning.
Often highlighting important ideas and letting secondary or tertiary ideas slide into the background by subordination.
6

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Subordination is achieved
by making an idea secondary/tertiary – background ideas become secondary to the main idea.
Every sentence has a main, independent clause consisting of at least a subject and a verb.
SIMPLE SENTENCE
Even with modifiers and objects added, it still remains a simple sentence.
Berkeley admitted Sarah.
Situated on the San Francisco
Bay, Berkeley admitted Sarah for the upcoming school year to the delight of her family.
Because of the severe economic situation in the Yukon, the state of Alaska, due to the amount of income generated by the tourist industry, passed a bill eliminating the tourist tax on all goods taken from the state.
MODIFIERS added to a simply subject and verb yields a simple sentence.
7

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Two simple, independent sentences combined yield compound sentences. Two independent clauses combined. (s & v)
S & V plus S & V and any modifiers, clauses or phrases.
Sentences are combined with two things: ;
,( conjunction )
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Each sentence in the overall sentence has equal emphasis using coordinate clauses: ,and, but, or ,nor, yet, for, so
Are you busy, or can we talk?
Bob likes pizza; Jan likes ice cream.
; however, moreover; nevertheless, otherwise, therefore, consequently.
Independent clauses joined together.
8

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Independent and dependent (subordinate) clauses in one sentence.
Both must be a clause, contains s & v.
Important ideas to independent clause
Secondary ideas to subordinate clause.
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Although Sara was not in the top quarter of her class, Berkeley admitted her as a freshman in the class of 2009.
The region contained many bears, even though they were no longer protected by law.
9

FINDING INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT CLAUSES
 1. Find the signal word for the dependent clause.
(Only Relative Pronouns for Adj. Clauses).
 2. Find the subject and verb in the dependent clause and all modifiers.
 3. Find the subject and verb of the independent clause.
 4. Check the dependent clause for all additional modifiers that are not part of the independent clause.
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5. Check for the sentence syntax to see if the sentence needs a s, v and o.
6. Remember that only action verbs need DO –
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8. If the verb does not answer WHO or WHAT after the verb - then that action verb does not have an object. Remember that the IO answers TO
WHOM OR FOR WHOM before a DO.
7. Remember that the Linking/Passive verbs take
PN and PA.
8. IF YOU DO NOT HAVE AN OBJECT IN THIS SENTENCE DUE
TO THE NATURE OF THE VERB -- THEN PROCEED TO
CHECK FOR OTHER NOUN
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8. If the clause is not then the object - check to see if it is an appositive, or obj. of prep -- if none of these, then you know the clause is not a noun clause.
9. Then it only leaves Adj. or Adv. for the clause to be. Check the signal word -then go through what Adj. and Adv. answers, which word it would modify. and then make a decision about what kind the clause is and what it modifies.
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After
Although
As
Because
Before
Even though
If
How
Just as
Next
Now that
Once
Since so that
Supposing
Than that
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Unless
Until
What
When
Whenever
Where
Where as
Wherever
Whether
Which
While
Who
Whoever why
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 Combining two sentences with one or more dependent clauses creates a
Compound-Complex
Sentence
 These elaborate sentence structures to convey the interrelationship of ideas and to have the ideas of one part of the sentence be paramount to the other parts.
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{Prevent sentences from sounding awkward and stumbling.
A graceful combination of sounds, accents, phrases, and pauses often indicated by punctuation.
Commas, semicolons, colons, dashes and periods break sentences into rhythmic units.
Each rest gives the reader a chance to pause momentarily and allows ideas to sink in.
Long sentences with a string of prepositional phrases lack pauses and thus lacks rhythm. Long sentences may be grammatically flawless, but lack rhythm..
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Often AP tests questions target how the “rhythm” of the language helps convey the message.
 Sentences and passages derive their beauty and power from a combination of rhythm and balance – parallel clauses and phrases.
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 Everything has its appointed hour, there is a time for all things under heaven: a time for birth, a time for death, a time to plant and a time to uproot, at time to kill, a time to heal, a time to break down and a time to build, a time to cry, a time to laugh, a time to mourn, a time to dance, a time to scatter and a time to refrain, at time to seek, and time to lose, a time to keep, a time to throw away, a time to tear, a time to sew, a time for silence, and a time for speech, a time for love, a time for hate, a time for war, a time for peace.
 A consistent matching and repetition of parallel phrases and clauses create that rhythm and balance. Rhythmic eloquence is created.
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Stream-of-Consciousness novels or other pieces of modern works often are characterized by an absence of regular rhythm. Recreating a person’s random, fragmented internal thoughts creates this random style.
 Words capture the chaos of the human thought or suggest the prevailing atmosphere of a character’s mind, or provide a visual of modern life or other intents seen by the reader.
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Author’s intentionally use rhythm to arouse emotion and emotional effects. Peace and calm demands a slow, even rhythm or internal turmoil with short, choppy phrases, a combination of questions and fragmentary sentences to convey a clipped rhythm of human thought.
18

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Everything one reads or writes is subject to analysis in rhetorical terms.
 The RHETORIC of some works is easier to discern than that of others. Prose and Poetry is more obvious as the reader sees the author’s personality and attitude toward the subject.
 More difficult are advertisements, government documents, legal documents, diplomatic documents, religious writings.
 All writing have rhetorical characteristics: a certain choice of words, a certain order of words or phrases, a certain syntax of sentences, sounds, structure of sentences, tone, sequence of ideas, selection of details.
 All these devices service a purpose toward the whole of communication -- to tell a story or convey ideas.
 Conveying and stimulate a certain responses in the reader may be the purpose of the use of certain rhetorical devices; a biographers may want to communicate ideas about his life; the writer may want to “convince” the reader.
19

Intellectual Purpose of Rhetorical Devices
Emotive Purpose of Rhetorical Devices
 What the author intends his readers to think in
INTELLECTUAL PURPOSE. Pieces written to inform, instruct or tell “how.”
 What the author wants the reader to feel is the
EMOTIVE PURPOSE – feel in all senses.
 The two purposes are usually not separate or distinct -- thoughts and feelings blend into a reader’s total response to a work.
20

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A writer’s attitude toward the subject is not necessarily identical with the response of the reader. A person writing a sale ad may not like the product, but his purposefully uses words to produce a particular response – to BUY.
LANGUAGE MOLDS THE READER’S ATTITUDE
TOWARD THE SUBJECT DISCUSSED.
TONE determines what that attitude will be.
AP exams deal with these concepts.
Intellectual and emotive impact of a writer’s tone and diction (denotation and connotation), metaphorical meanings– figurative language and allusions.
LANGUAGE MOLDS READER’S ATTITUDE
21

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One of the most common objective questions asks you to identify the TONE of a poem or passage, of a sentence, or even of a single word or phrase.
You need a sense of the narrator’s or speaker’s attitude toward the subject of the passage.
An author’s tone may be complex or may shift part way through a passage.
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TONE is the psychological quality of the words. Words themselves and the manner in which they are expressed work together to establish tone.
A question can be funny, sassy, inquisitive, challenging or a simple question. The inflections of a voice is not available to a reader, so a reader must depend upon diction.
22

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Diction is the writer’s choice of words, including figures of speech – to establish tone.
“Shut your mouth!”
Please keep still!”
“Would you be kind enough not to talk now?”
The three locutions (style of speaking, phraseology) mean the same.
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The tone in each sentence could hardly be any more different because of the words chosen to convey the meaning evoke different feelings.
The form (types) of sentences significantly influence tone, other rhetorical elements also play a major part, especially diction, metaphors, and other figures of speech such as symbols and allusions.
23

 Tone is often revealed through types of sentences: --
 exclamatory,
 interrogative,
 imperative and
 declarative
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Declarative: makes a statement and ends with a period.
Interrogative: asks a question and ends with a question mark.
Imperative: makes a request or give a command; ends with a period or an exclamation point.
Exclamatory: shows excitement or expresses strong feeling and ends with an exclamation point.
24

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Exclamatory and imperative: wish, desire, command, and usually ends with exclamatory point.
Can express degrees of being on a mission, begging, beseeching, praying, imploring, apologizing, requesting, advising, commanding, persuading and so on.
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Interrogative: to obtain information, challenge, denial, disbelief, hesitation, and so on.
AP exam questions are most likely to be rhetorical questions
– questions that have only one correct answer, implied in the questions itself. Used in argumentation, a rhetorical questions calls attention to a obvious proposition or idea. It has the force of a strong assertion. Lincoln used rhetorical questions in his speeches for emphasis.
25

 RATIOCINATIO – questions that function as guides to the discussion and are used to make an argument more dramatic and convincing, is a series of questions and answers,, structured somewhat like a dialogue or an author’s interview with himself.
 “
When our ancestors condemned women for one crime, they considered that by this single judgment she was convicted of many transgressions. How so?
Judged unchaste, she was also deemed guilty of poisoning.
Why? Because, having sold her body to the basest passion, she had to live in fear of many persons. Who are these? Her husband, her parents, and the others.”
26

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The most common form of sentences – make a factual statement. It does not blatantly reveal its tone.
Most of the time the tone in neutral, matter-of-fact way -- prevalent in scientific and other informational prose. They may also be charged with emotion.
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Words can create a portrait of an awe-inspiring , larger-thanlife figure through the use of similes, overstatements, and exaggeration.
“People who knew Thomas Wolfe recall that he habitually roamed down the long aisles of the library stacks, grabbing one book after the other from the shelves and devouring its contents as if he were a starving man suddenly let loose in an immense storehouse of food.
He wrote with abandon, turning out incredible quantities of manuscript, filling whole packing cases with the product of his frenzied pen.”
27

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Diction also creates tone.
Diction is one of the elements of style that give each person’s writing, for good or ill, a quality that is uniquely his/her own.
TONE -- another element of style, involves not only a manner of writing that shows a certain attitude, but also an emotional and intellectual quality, more or less pronounced, that arises from the urge to set down on paper some experiences, some views, some ideas that the writer wants to share with the reader.
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Two elements of style are:
The variety of the forms of the writer’s sentences and paragraphs.
The pace and the sequence of the presentation of everything the writer has to say.
The choice of words, the structure of the sentences, the rhythm created by arranging the words so hat accents fall into a pleasing pattern create the style .
Preparation for the exam includes close critical study of the many elements that
28 comprise style.

 The power to judge aspects of the character and personality of the
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The power to arrive inferentially and logically at conclusions related to the work and supported by evidence within the work. writer that are reflected in the way
Tone will also determine and be supported by the language, metaphors, symbols, allusions and his attitude toward the subject the writer uses. he/she fuses the many elements of the work.
 The ability to make such judgments, as well as to arrive at logical conclusions suggested but not directly stated, comes from inferential reading.
29

ADJECTIVES – TERMS TO DESCRIBE THE STYLE OF VARIOUS
PASSAGES.
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Clarity -- lucid, explicit
Obscurity -- obscure, vague, involuted
Plainness -- unvarnished, severe, commonplace, unimaginative, sparse
Embellishment -- ornate, flowery, turgid, bombastic, florid
Conciseness -- brief, terse, laconic, succinct, sententious
Diffuseness - verbose, prolix, rambling, protracted, wordy, convoluted
Elegance -- polished, classic, graceful, symmetrical, felicitous
Inelegance -- graceless, vulgar, labored, ponderous, tasteless
Vigor -- forcible, mordant, incisive, graphic, impassioned, trenchant
Feebleness -- prosaic, unvaried, sketchy, weak, puerile, inferior, ineffective\
Conformity -- ordinary, commonplace, bromidic, exemplary
Unconformity - singular, amorphous, bizarre, extraordinary
30


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Length usually determines complexity of ideas.
Educated, literate audiences will require longer sentences -- but remember: profound ideas can be expressed in
“pithy” sentences.”
“I think, therefore I am.”
 Look for sentences markedly different from the average
 Protracted sentences: short sentence in certain places for emphasis.
31




Rhetorical Purposes are to structure passages with certain length sentences – whether they be long or short sentences.
Too many long sentences may mean the writer cannot distinguish what is important.
Shorter sentences make the point quicker and with considerable force.



Blunt closing sentences produce a jolt to the reader.
Juxtaposing a tight, terse sentence against a long one leaves mark on the reader’s conscience.
Long and short sentences are both necessary to convey ideas, but when writing an essay, look for those that are markedly different from the average.
32



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The order of sentence arrangement affects a reader’s response to a sentence.
The end of a sentence is the most important part of a sentence. The reader’s mind comes to a stop at the end due to punctuation.
Sometimes important ideas can go at the beginning.
 The middle of sentences is usually reserved for less important ideas.


Periodic sentences save important idea until the end:
When the poor worker is allowed to work at half price and the good worker is forced to work for an inadequate wage, hardly sufficient to support a family, a false, unnatural, and destructive economic system develops. (s & v at the end and idea is delayed until the end.
33



Sometimes the main idea can be delayed. The main clause is introduced early , but its completion is postponed by modifiers and other interrupting material:
The tall shapely trees, their branches withered and their trunks bent inward toward the slope of the mountain, showed the effects of raging winds.



Most English sentences are loose but prose with only periodic sentences is difficult to read -combining periodic and loose sentences give the most efficient means of communication of ideas.
Climatic emphasis at the end by using periodic sentence.
He suddenly saw an empty, garbage-strewn lot instead of the familiar white house as he steered his Honda into the driveway.
34





The loose sentence gives the main idea or its
“secret” at the start.
It follows the subjectverb-object pattern of the
English language. He used a cell phone.
An endless progression of loose sentences is monotonous.
One gives a climatic ending by using periodic sentences after loose sentences.




An endless progression of periodic sentences if difficult to read.
A balance is the best in literature.
How sentence parts are arranged help convey meaning.
Often highlighting important ideas and letting secondary or tertiary ideas slide into the background by subordination.
35



Subordination is achieved
by making an idea secondary/tertiary – background ideas become secondary to the main idea.
Every sentence has a main, independent clause consisting of at least a subject and a verb.
SIMPLE SENTENCE
Even with modifiers and objects added, it still remains a simple sentence.
Berkeley admitted Sarah.
Situated on the e\San Francisco
Bay, Berkeley admitted Sarah for the upcoming school year to the delight of her family.
Because of the severe economic situation in the Yukon, the state of Alaska, due to the amount of income generated by the tourist industry, passed a bill eliminating the tourist tax on all goods taken from the state.
MODIFIERS added to a simply subject and verb yields a
36 simple sentence.

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Two simple, independent sentences combined yield compound sentences. Two independent clauses combined. (s & v)
S & V plus S & V and any modifiers, clauses or phrases.
Sentences are combined with two things: ;
,( conjunction )
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Each sentence in the overall sentence has equal emphasis using coordinate clauses: ,and, but, or ,nor, yet, for, so
Are you busy, or can we talk?
Bob likes pizza; Jan likes ice cream.
; however, moreover; nevertheless, otherwise, therefore, consequently.
Independent clauses joined together.
37

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Independent and dependent (subordinate) clauses in one sentence.
Both must be a clause, contains s & v.
Important ideas to independent clause
Secondary ideas to subordinate clause.
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Although Sara was not in the top quarter of her class,s Berkeley admitted her as a freshman in the class of 2008.
The region contained many bears even though they were no longer protected by law.
38

 Syntax is a set of rules in a language. It dictates how words from different parts of speech are put together in order to convey a complete thought
 the way in which linguistic elements (as words) are put together to form constituents (as phrases or clauses) --
 the part of grammar dealing with this --
 a connected or orderly system : harmonious arrangement of parts or elements
39

 Syntax affects the nature of a prose text as well. It enhances its meanings and contributes toward its tone. Quickness, decisiveness and speed are added to a text by using short phrase, clauses and sentences.
 Whereas, in a text where the subject matter is serious that requires contemplation, long, convoluted sentence are used to slow down the pace of a prose text.
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 Essay Tips: Syntax - What to Say About It
 Discuss syntax AFTER you have discussed the basics, diction, tone, and imagery. Alternatively, you might discuss syntax IN RELATION TO the basics.
 For example, you might discuss how the final lines in "The Crossing" convey-the sense of wonder in almost poetic form as the sentences are not really sentences at all, but are like the character's stream of consciousness.
41

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 When you see very long sentences, consider:
Is the author trying to replicate the physical movement of the character (as when McCarthy describes how the hunter in "The Crossing" carefully lowers the animal after cradling it in his arms, unwraps the body, and washes the blood off the sheet)?
Is the author trying to suggest confusion or simulate the rapid flow of ideas or emotions, as when Rachel silently and furiously denies that the sweater is hers?
Is the author piling on detail after detail to illustrate the enormity, weight, or extensiveness of something, like the enormous English breakfast and the extensiveness of
English domination?
42

 When you see very short sentences, consider:
 Is the author trying to stress a key idea?
 Is the author trying to sound objective and/or factual?
 Is the author trying to convey anxiety or quicken the pace in contrast to longer, more complex ideas?
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 When you see parallelism ("on the sea, in the air, over the land...") consider:
 Is the author trying to stress the sheer number of things?
 Is the author trying to create rhythm, force, power?
 Is the author trying to stir emotion? ("I have a dream ")
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 When you see repetition of key words or phrases ("Made in England"), consider:
 Is the author trying to stress a key. idea?
 Is the author using repetition to convey emotion, such as anger, bitterness, joy?
45

 AP English Language or AP English Literature prompt you need to make sure that you use very specific words to describe the author's tone and attitude .
 Here are 80 tone and attitude words to spruce up your essays.
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TONE WORDS sharp upset joyful dreamy allusive restrained mourning sweet proud hollow vexed didactic urgent joking peaceful mocking poignant objective detached vibrant shocking somber giddy provocative condescending sympathetic contemptuous apologetic sarcastic nostalgic zealous irreverent candid skeptical arrogant tolerant pretentious moralistic candid dogmatic inquisitive inspirational melodramatic satiric somber elegiac whimsical mock-heroic disdainful flippant patronizing inflammatory defiant indignant animated abstruse obsequious colloquial subjective apathetic outspoken naive pejorative gullible pitiful taunting turgid aggressive sensational curious dramatic ironic lugubrious facetious burlesque colloquial compassionate quarrelsome indulgent lethargic delirious euphoric callous vindictive malicious empathetic aggrieved clinical cynical whimsical slapstick contrite prayerful ghoulish laudatory frank pensive sentimental tired disparaging confused frivolous fanciful humorous benevolent disheartened bitter cold childish audacious complimentary didactic concerned sardonic conciliatory mistrusting ambitious impartial contentious reflective deferential philosophical snobbish learned diffident pedantic erudite petty indignant horrific seductive conceited insipid insolent indifferent enthusiastic ambivalent informative factual bantering clinical incisive sharp persuasive morose pathetic farcical sensationalistic disapproving unassuming reticent celebratory playful awe inane affectionate mock-serious scornful diffusive ennui whiny jade
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 Tone and Attitude Words
1. angry
2. sarcastic
3. sweet
4. harsh
5. cheerful
6. pleasant
7. sharp
8. disgusted
9. haughty
10. soothing
11. melancholic
12. depressed
13. ecstatic
14. agitated
15. sympathetic
16. seductive
17. hollow
18. humorous
19. passive
20. persuasive
21. afraid
22. tired
23. happy
24. disappointed
 25. dejected
26. excited
27. desperate
28. superficial
29. sad
30. artificial
31. authoritative
32. surprised
33. ironic
34. content
35. hurt
36. confused
37. questioning
38. inquisitive
39. arrogant
40. condescending
41. coarse
42. romantic
43. upset
44. paranoid
45. pleading
46. numb
47. cynical
48. facetious
49. hating
50. nervous
51. loving
52. scornful
53. enthusiastic
54. snooty
55. dreamy
56. lighthearted
57. humble
58. instructive
59. disinterested
60. uninterested
61. cheery
62. manipulative
63. contradictory
64. aggravated
65. serious
66. calm
67. proud
68. apathetic
69. encouraging
70. consoling
71. friendly
72. loud
73. brash
74. apologetic
75. appreciative
76. joyful
77. miserable
78. vibrant
79. whimsical
80. wistful
48

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The author’s attitude is expressed through the words and details he or she selects.
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For example, textbooks are usually written with an objective tone which includes facts and reasonable explanations. The objective tone is matterof-fact and neutral.
The details are mostly facts. On the other hand, fiction and personal essays are usually written with a subjective tone. A subjective tone uses words that describe feelings, judgments, or opinions. The details are likely to include experiences, senses, feelings, and thoughts.
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Objective tone is impartial. It does not show any feelings for or against a topic; therefore, it is unbiased or neutral. Often objective tone uses higher level words and avoids pronouns such as I and you , creating a formal tone.
Subjective tone is personal, biased, emotional, and often informal.
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 NOTE : Tone is expressed through the words and details the author selects. To determine the author’s tone, you must notice how these words and details are used within the writing.
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Example: The following statements each express different attitudes about a shabby apartment. Six different tones are used: optimistic, bitter, tolerant, sentimental, humorous , and objective.
1. This place may be shabby, but since both of my children were born while we lived here, it has a special place in my heart.
.
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The tone is sentimental. “It has a special place in my heart,” expresses tender emotions.
2. This isn’t the greatest apartment in the world, but it’s not really that bad.
 The tone is tolerant. The words “not really that bad” show that the writer accepts the situation while recognizing that it could be better.
 3. If only there were some decent jobs out there,
I wouldn’t be reduced to living in this miserable dump
51

 The tone is bitter. The writer resents a situation that forces him or her to live in a “miserable dump.”
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4. This place does need some repairs, but I’m sure the landlord will be making improvements sometime soon.
 The tone is optimistic. The writer is expecting the apartment to be improved soon.

5. When we move away, we’re planning to release three hundred cockroaches and tow mice, so we can leave the place exactly as we found it.
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 The tone is humorous. The writer claims to be planning a comic revenge on the landlord by returning the apartment to the terrible condition it was in when the tenants moved in.
 6. This is the apartment we live in. It provides shelter.
 The tone is objective. The writer does not express feelings about the apartment. He simply states facts.
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SECONDARY RHETORICAL TRIANGLE
 Purpose -- aim, intention, belief at end
Context – who, what, when, where current, topical, social, discipline
 Genre – type of text
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Purpose -- aim, intention, belief at end -- Tone,
Diction, Style,
Speaker or writer - persona
Context
– who, what, when, where current, topical, social, discipline
Audience
Who will hear or read
Subject
Topic/Message
 Genre – type of text
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