GUIDED READING QUESTIONS: Early Medieval
Mr. Walker (APAH)
NAME:
The purpose of this guide is to simply assist you in your studies of the material found in the unit. Feel free to use this document
directly or adapt it to meet your individual needs. You may wish to answer the question prompts on a separate sheet of paper,
as space was intentionally limited in order to fit the questions into the document in a compact manner.
FUSION OF PEOPLES

Scholars state that the Early Medieval period of approximately 500 years (between 500 and 1000)
was a time of great innovation, caused by the “fusion” of ideology and culture. Name the three
principle factors that were being fused.
1) Greco-Roman heritage (former NW provinces of Rome)
2) non-Roman peoples (north of the Alps)
3) Christianity
GREAT CONFLICT / CHANGE IN POWER

Rome’s power waned, causing competition for political authority across Europe among many
Roman & non-Roman peoples. Name the groups of people vying for power at this time (&, if
possible – state their place of origin and course of action / destination)
o Huns
o Vandals
o Merovingians
o Franks
o Lombards
o Anglo Saxons
o Celts (Hiberno Saxons)
o Goths (Ostrogoths, Visigoths)
o & other non-Roman peoples of Europe
 List the four categories of the Early Medieval period.
1) Warrior Lords
2) Hiberno Saxon
3) Carolingian
4) Ottonian

How would you characterize the types of art forms produced during the time of the “Warrior
Lords”?
1) weaponry
2) precious items of personal adornment (jewelry, etc.)
 What purpose does a fibula serve?
1) Status symbol among the warlords of Early Middle Ages
2) Fastened people’s garments
 Describe the art technique of cloisonné.
Powdered, ground glass pigments baked in kiln to fill the metal-framed areas of a piece of jewelry.

List reasons why early scholars, viewing the art through the “Renaissance lens”, considered work
from the Early Medieval period “minor arts”?
1) small scale
2) seeming utilitarian nature
3) abstract ornament
4) the fact that the people who made them rejected the classical notion that art should center on the
representation of the organic world.

What reason might contribute to the fact that most of the art produced at this time was of small
stature?
Because of the migratory nature of the cultures, most art was small and rather portable.
 Where were most of these small but precious artifacts found (their ‘find-spot’)?
Ship burials
 Who were the Vikings?
1) Pirates of Scandinavia
2) The “North Men” (men from the North) >> Norsemen
3) Norwegian shoreline (Viks = coves / trading places)
 In what areas did the Vikings excel?
1) war
2) organization
3) administration
4) building seaworthy ships
5) colonization of lands
OH, THE PLACES THE VIKINGS WIL GO…




In 793, the Vikings landed on the
.
th
In the 10 century, the Vikings settled in
is now referred to as
.
th
In the 11 century, the Vikings briefly ruled
Danish Empire!
Later, the Norman Duke – William the Conquerer, sailed across the
, invaded
and became master of
o British Isles
o Northern France; Normandy
o England
o English Channel; England; Anglo-Saxon England
Oseburg Ship Burial
 Where was this ship found?
Oseburg, Norway – under an earthen mound
 How long is the Viking ship?
70 (+) feet
-- And, this land
, making it part of the
.
 What was found inside the ship?
The remains of two women were found inside the ship.
Animal head-post (from the Viking ship burial)
Oseburg, Norway – ca 834
 What are two (2) stylistic characteristics of Viking art?
1) interlace patterns (abstract) – elaborate, intertwining lines and shapes
2) animal designs / forms
------------------------------------*essentially >>> the Viking art is a beautiful fusion of the stylistic characteristics of the Warrior Lord art
on the northern frontiers of the former Roman Empire.
CHRISTIAN ART – SCANDINAVIA, BRITISH ISLES, SPAIN
 Hiberno Saxon – what is meant by this term?
Irish; Hibernia is the Romans name of Ireland)
 In Ireland, when did the Celts become Christianized?
5th century
Stave Church, Urnes
1050-1070
 Describe the material/s and manner in which a “stave church” is constructed.
Wedge-shaped timbers placed vertically

Locate a high quality image of the stave church’s portal. What words would you use to describe it?
o Animal style (use of animal forms)
o Interlace
o Intricate, linear, curved, writhing
 What art form (and from what centuries), most likely, is the contributing influence to this portal?
Illuminated manuscripts of the 7th and 8th centuries (they were the most extant monuments of Hiberno
Saxon artistic culture)
MEDIEVAL BOOKS


Describe what an Irish monastery was like (location / proximity to surrounding civilization, parts
of…, etc.) What were the purposes of a monastery?
o independence (insular)
o scriptorium (pl. scriptoria) – copies of Bible pages
o missionaries – spreading of the word of God to others
The Old Testament of the Jews was originally written in which language? In what language was the
New Testament written? Together, the NT & OT were combined to create the sacred text called
“The Bible” – which means what?
Hebrew; Latin; the book

In the late part of the 4th century, who created the first Latin translation of the Bible? What was this
translation called (and why)?
St. Jerome; Vulgate (Vulgar, or common tongue)
 What is the name given to the first five (5) books of the Old Testament?
The Pentateuch
 In what section of the Bible would we find “the Gospels”? What books of the Bible comprise this?
The first four (4) books of the New Testament; Matthew, Mark, Luke and John

List some of the “other types” of books (other than the principal sacred texts) generated during this
time, and used for the purposes of the church.
o Benedictionals (contain bishops’ blessings)
o Sacramentaries (incorporation of prayers preists recite during Mass)
o Book of Hours (books designed for laity, patterned after monks’ readers, containing prayers
to be read at specific time of the day)
 Dissect the word “manuscript”. What does it mean?
Latin: manu (by hand) scriptus (written)
 What is an illuminated manuscript?
A manually written and illustrated (illuminated = addition of colored illustrations)
 For the Christian faith – what was the main purpose of these books?
They served the efforts to Christianize the British Isles (literally bringing the word of God to a
predominately illiterate population.
Book of Durrow
Man (symbol of Saint Matthew) folio 21 verso of the Book of Durrow
possibly from Iona, Scotland – ca 660-680
Ink and tempera on parchment

This represents a carpet page from the Book of Durrow – a dividing page facing another dedicated
to the symbol of the evangelist who wrote that Gospel. More than likely, what may have been the
contemporaneous source of inspiration for the elaborate interlace designs found in the frame?
The belt buckles and brooches (jewelry pieces) made using the cloisonné technique
 Explain the manner in which the evangelist is portrayed here (namely the body, head and feet).
Schematic – head (frontal) and feet (strict profile); his body being comprised of total abstraction
Lindisfarne Gospels
Cross-inscribed carpet page, folio 26 verso of the Lindisfarne Gospels
from Northumbria, England – ca. 698-721
Tempera on vellum

Explain what scholars mean when they state that this is a perfect example of the fusion of the style
used in the art associated with the northern warlords and Christian imagery.
Animal interlace (warrior lord artistic style) + unifying form of the cross (Christian)
Lindisfarne Gospels
Saint Matthew, folio 25 verso of the Lindisfarne Gospels
from Northumbria, England – ca. 698-721
Tempera on vellum

Coming from the very same book, this page is seen as a contrast (the exception) to the total
abstraction with which the Cross-inscribed carpet page was handled. Why? Explain.
Classical influences still persistent here: 1) curtain 2) angle (use /attempted perspective) 3) Greek and
Latin inscriptions 4) philosophers pose

Despite the persistent classical influences, what are the obvious non-classical stylistic
characteristics seen here?
o Lack of modeling (light and shadow)
o Pleats in curtain are merely filled in with color = flat quality

The words “Imago Hominis” can be read at the top left corner of the composition. What does this
mean?
Imago Hominis = Image of the man

The words “O, Agios” and “Mattheus” can also be read in the upper center area of the composition.
Explain the languages used for each passage and their translations.
> O, Agios (Greek, but written w/ Latin alphabet) = Saint
> Mattheus (Latin) = Matthew

Who might be the figure peering from behind the curtain, who is holding a closed book in his hand?
What might be implied by the inclusion of this figure and the closed book?
Identity is uncertain; however, he may be Christ, Saint Cuthbert or Moses; Moses holding the closed
book of the OT (in juxtaposition to the open book of the NT).
Chi-rho-iota (XPI) page, folio 34 recto of the Book of Kells
probably from Iona, Scotland – late eighth or early ninth century
Tempera on vellum
 What symbolism can be found within the context of this page?
XPI – the monogram for Christ (chi-rho-iota)
 What does the inscription mean (located at the lower right-hand position of the composition)?
Autem (abbrev simply as h) + Generatio = “now this is how the birth of Christ came about”
High Cross of Muirdach (east face)
Sandstone, 18’ high
923 – Monasterboice, Ireland

How would you describe an Irish cross?
o Circle intersecting a cross
o Sandstone
o Monumental

Does the manner in which the cross is composed (intersected with a circular form) remind you of
any past style of art?
Lunettes found in some of the catacombs (Good Shepherd and orants)

Describe the scene that is taking place on the east side of this cross? The western face of the cross?
What can be implied by the inclusion of this subject matter, with respect to the function of the
object?
Last Judgment; the Risen Christ (redemption); implication that the soul of the individual buried
beneath will be redeemed through Christ’s sacrifice on the cross.
CAROLINGIAN ART
 Explain, as succinctly as possible, how the “feudal system” worked.
It involved a set of reciprocal legal and military obligations among the warrior nobility, revolving
around the three key concepts of lords, vassals and fiefs.
 What happened on Christmas day, in the year 800, in Rome?
Pope Leo crowned Charles the Great (Charlemange) as emperor of Rome (r. 800-814). Charlemange
had been king of the Franks since 768.

What distinction could Charlemange now boast? In other words – he became the first
.
In time, Charlemange became know as the first Holy Roman Emperor.

What did Charlemange do that was so important?
 Born in 742 (Europe in chaos)
 Consolidated the Frankish kingdom his father and grandfather bequeathed him
 Defeated the Lombards in Italy
 United Europe and laid claim to reviving glory of the ancient Roman Empire
 Explain why this period of history is referred to as the “Carolingian” period.
Charles the Great >>> Carolus Magnus (in Latin) >>> Carolingian (essentially meaning the period
devoted to Charles)
 Describe the “Carolingian renaissance”. What was it like?
Period of great intellectual renewal, high importance placed on books, high quality art

When he returned home, from his trip abroad / coronation in Rome, what did he order be
transferred to Aachen (from Ravenna)? Hint: it had formerly been a possession of Ostrogothic king
Theodoric.
An equestrian portrait of the king Theodoric
 Charlemange studied
Rhetoric; math
and
 Charlemange’s native tongue was
Frankish
.
.
 Charlemange could read and speak fluent
Latin
.
 Charlemange also had a good understanding of the
Greek
language.
 However, Charlemange had never learned how to
Write
properly.
CAROLINGIAN SCULPTURE
Equestrian portrait of Charlemange (or Charles the Bald)
Ninth century

1.
2.
3.
Identify any objects present in the equestrian portrait that contain symbolic significance (explain)?
Orb / globe = symbol of world domination
Imperial robes (rather than a general’s cloak – although a sheathed sword is visible)
Crown = imperial significance

This portrayal of a leader surmounting a horse paid homage to which previous example? Despite
the string influence of this work, explain how it fundamentally differed.
Equestrian Sculpture of Marcus Aurelius; Aurelius’ portrayal demonstrated his dominance by granting
clemency / diplomacy (and originally contained a fallen enemy cowering beneath the stead, whereas
Charlemange’s version represents him as if “on parade”).
 Essentially, what statement does Charlemange’s equestrian portrait make about his rule?
The portrait proclaimed the renovatio (renewal) of the Roman Empire’s power and trappings.
 What did Charlemange wish to recover during his reign? Why?
The true text of the Bible; He felt as though the current translation of the Bible had become too
corrupt.
CAROLONGIAN ILLUMINATED MANUSCRIPTS
Saint Matthew, folio 18 verso of the Ebbo Gospels
(Gospel Book of Archbishop Ebbo of Reims), from Hautvillers (near Reims), France
ink and tempera on vellum
ca. 816-835

Explain what scholars mean when they refer to this as reflecting a “classical” taste. List the classical
qualities exhibited by this work.
1) Greater sense of illusionism: a) Value (effects of light & shadow) used instead of “line” [see drapery
folded beneath the seated figure], b) Perspective
2) Roman trappings / accessories: a) cross-legged chair, b) lectern, c) saint’s toga
Saint Matthew, folio 15 recto of the Coronation Gospels
(Gospel Book of Charlemange), from Aachen, Germany
ink and tempera on vellum
ca. 800-810

Overall, how would you compare / contrast the two versions of Saint Matthew (Ebbo and
Coronation)?
Quiet, calm <<< >>> energetic, nervous vitality / frenzy
 How would the viewer identify the figure as being Saint Matthew?
The winged man (top right of composition), who is reading from a scroll to the saint.

If the Lindsafarne Gospel Matthew represents an artist interpreting an imported model according to
Hiberno-Saxon idiom, and the Coronation Gospel Matthew represents an artist responding to the
persistent influence of the Greco-Roman tradition, what then might be said of this version of
Matthew (Ebbo Gospels)?
The artist merged classical illustionism with the northern linear tradition.
Psalm 44, detail of folio 25 recto of the Utrecht Psalter
from Hautvillers (near Reims), France
ink on vellum
ca. 820-835

What is noteworthy, regarding the (overall aesthetic) manner in which the artist chose to
represent the Psalms of David?
Scholars suggest that the costumes and other details depicted in the page indicate the artist following
previous model(s) complied 400 years prior. Even if this is not a copy, the artist’s intention was aimed
to evoke an “ancient” feel.

With respect to the treatment of figures, which version of Matthew would you most likely associate
this particular work?
The Ebbo Gospel Matthew – nervous, energetic treatment of the figures (heads aimed forward,
hunched shoulders)

Locate a copy of Psalm 44, read it and point out at least one of the anecdotal representations
chosen by the artist in this work.
a) “…we are counted as sheep for slaughter,”
b) “…our soul is bowed down to the dust; our belly cleaveth unto the earth.”
c) “Awake, why sleepest thou, O Lord”
Crucifixion, front cover of the Lindau Gospels
from Saint Gall, Switzerland
gold, precious, and pearls
ca. 870
 Explain the manner in which the artist chose to depict Christ.
Despite the tragic suffering associated with the crucifixion, Christ (the central motif) here is depicted
as…
1) youthful [classical]
2) victorious (un-suffering)
3) very similar to the Early Christian tradition

What is the name of the technique used to create the gold sculpture featuring Christ and the other
4 quadrants here? Explain how the artist’s treatment of the surrounding raised jewels might
reinforce the importance of the gold.
repoussé ; the jewels are set in position, protruding outward in a manner that protects the thin gold
repoussé areas.
CAROLONGIAN ARCHITECTURE – PALATINE CHAPEL
Palatine Chapel of Charlemange
Aachen, Germany
792-805
 Why did Charlemange choose Aachen as the area for establishing his palace?
Because of the hot springs that existed there.

Which two centers did Charlemange visit often, in order to gain insight / inspiration for his new
kingdom?
Rome and Ravenna

In particular, what architectural structure served as the model for the Palatine Chapel? Which is
more simplified?
San Vitale (in Ravenna); The Palatine Chapel is more simplified
 What can the Palatine Chapel boast, with respect to architecture in the Middle Ages?
Being the first vaulted structure, north of the Alps
 What event occurred here, with respect to Charlemange’s son?
Charlemange’s son, Louis the Pious, was coronated here when he succeeded his father
CAROLONGIAN ARCHITECTURE – THE IDEAL MONASTERY
Schematic plan for a monastery at Saint Gall, Switzerland
ca. 819

Who was Saint Benedict?
 Why and when did he form the Benedictine order?
Increased corruption – due to the lack of a centralized organized structure, he felt the church had
become increasingly neglectful of God commandments to them; 529
 What did he write? What did it state?
A “Rule” >>> The Benedictine Rule
 What is a cloister?
Open, colonnaded courtyard (like the Roman atrium) – reserved only for the monks
 What is a module? Explain why this plan is considered a ‘module plan’?
a) A module is a standard unit of measure, upon which all other dimensions of a particular object is
built.
b) Here, you can observe how every building relates to one another and is formed by combining
various quantities of a given module (unit of measure). Recall modular homes… interior spaces that
can easily accommodate appliances, such as: microwaves, refrigerators, washers, dryers, etc. >>> all of
which are based on a standard unit of measure.
 Why might the cloister fulfill the role of “earthly paradise”?
Removed from the world, peace and quiet contemplation, studying and copying scriptures, etc.
CAROLINGIAN PERIOD – POST CHARLEMANGE
During what years did Charlemange rule? To whom was the power transferred, after Charlemange’s
reign? Explain.
o Charlemange ruled from 800-814 (died)
o Louis the Pious (his son) ruled until 840 (died); was known as being 1) extremely devout
[almost monk-like], 2) a weak and ineffective leader
o then, his three sons (Lothair, Louis the German, Charles the Bald) fought for control of the
Frankish Empire… finally deciding to divide the Empire, but Frankish power was never the
same.
CAROLONGIAN ARCHITECTURE – ABBEY CHURCH PLANS
Abbey Church at Corvey
What feature exists on the western façade of this church?
A westworks (monumental western side, framed on the corner by two large towers).
OTTONIAN ART
 In one word, describe living climate in Europe during the 10th century.
Chaotic



What group of people invaded from the EAST?
What group of people invaded from the NORTH?
What group of people vied for power in the CENTER?
o Magyars (from EAST)
o Vikings (from NORTH)
o Lombards (in the CENTER)
 The Ottonians were essentially a collection of what?
The Saxon kings were collectively known as the “Ottonians”.
 Otto I (ruled 936-973); “Protector of Christiandom” [b/c, in 973 – he married a Byzantine
princess]
 Otto II (ruled until 983)
 Otto III (ruled until 1002); 1) wanted a Christian Roman Empire, 2) died early, at the age of 21,
3) obsessed with Charlemange [had Char’s bones dug up, buried next to him in Palatine Chapel]
 List some notable characteristics relating to the Ottonians (Saxon kings).
1. They admired Charlemange and the Franks (Char’s Coronation Gospels being the most treasured
possession).
2. Each king dealt effectively with the Viking and Magyar incursions, and established diplomatic
relations with the Byzantine Empire.
3. They sponsored monastic reforms.
*All of which contributed to a renewed stability and artistic creativity.
BISHOP BERNWARD & HIS CHURCH

1.
2.
3.
4.
Bishop Bernward – who was he? Where was his church? Explain.
Bishop Bernward was the tutor to Otto III
Builder of the abbey church of Saint Michael’s in Hildesheim, Germany
Made his church a center of learning (was an eager scholar, lover of the arts)
According to Thangmar of Heidelberg (his biographer) – Bernward was an expert craftsman and
bronze caster.
5. Traveled to Rome in 1001, as a guest of Otto III – able to study the great Roman monuments first
hand.
Abbey Church of Saint Michael’s (Hildesheim, Germany)
1001-1031

List any new features that you see present in this structure.
o Double transept (towers marking each one) – creating a notable division in the building
from East to West sides
o Entrances (two doors each) on the Northern & Southern faces of the building (recall the
Basilica Ulpia – Trajan’s basicila >>> entered via the longitudinal end of the building as well)
o Alteration of the traditional basilican plan church >>> the nave seems as though it merely
‘connects’ the West and East domains of the church (therefore, a different feel / function for
the nave here)
o Adoption of the modular approach (similar to the monastery of St. Gall), in which the
crossing squares are used as the basis for the nave’s dimensions (in this case >>> 3:1)

In the nave, we can see an alternation between piers and pairs of columns. What do we call this
type of support system? Why is this noteworthy?
a) This is called the alternate support system.
b) The alternate support system became a standard element of many Romanesque churches in
northern Europe.
Doors of Bishop Bernward
 What scenes are being depicted? How organized? Explain the significance.
Begin (top left) DESPAIR, proceed to bottom of left column; Next scene to the right (bottom) and
proceed to the top. Right side = REDEMPTION; Significance is that, through the door of the church,
there is hope, redemption (despite the original sin); further significance implied between the OT and
the NT scriptures (NT being unique to Christianity).
SMARTHISTORY
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=__pl88NO9Jw
Column of Bishop Bernward
 What was the source of inspiration for Bernward’s Column?
Trajan’s Column (in Rome)
 What scenes are being depicted?
The column depicts 24 scenes of Jesus’ life (“Christ’s Baptism” to “Entry into Jerusalem”). These are the
missing scenes (from the Life of Christ) – not found on Bernward’s Doors
 How is this column read? Similar / different that the model of inspiration?
Read from bottom to the top; however, the direction is from right to left (counter-clockwise).

Considering the underlying sources of inspiration for the word created under the direction of
Bernward, what might be implied by the Ottonian emperor’s claim at this time?
They most likely saw themselves as heirs to Charlemange’s renovatio imperii Romani
Gero Crucifix
Painted wood (height of figure – 6’ 2”)
Cologne Cathedral – ca. 970

In 970, the Archbishop Gero presented to Cologne Cathedral a work of art he had commissioned.
What was this? Describe the work.
 The work is entitled the Gero Crucifix.
 Description:
o Carved in wood, then gilded
o Compartment in back of the head >> held the Host (consecrated wafer)
o Style recalls >>> Byzantine art
o But, all too human >>> body of human martyr, blood streaking down his forehead, closed
eyelids, face contorted in pain, body sags under its own weight, muscles in his right
shoulder and chest seem to almost rip apart.
 Why do you think this image is included in most textbooks’ discussion of Ottonian art?
It represents a return to the medium of large scale sculpture, namely as it pertains to the human
figure.