Chelsea Hudson
Musicology Essay in Full
Carl Orff:
Born
10 July, 1895
Died
29 March, 1982
Carl Orff was a German composer from the twentieth century best known for his “Carmina
Burana”. Orff was also known for his work in musical education, specifically in his study of the
connections between music and movement. He found connects between the dramatic and musical
elements of his compositions with their “insistent, repeated patterns of notes and compelling
rhythms” (Naxos Classical Music, 2014a). From there, the “Orff Approach” was developed as a
way of teaching music to children through singing, dancing and acting which engaged both the
mind and the body (Estrella, 2014).
Carl Orff wrote a variety of dramatic choral works and operas, but he is certainly best known for
his “Carmina Burana”, a scenic cantata (Wikipedia, 2014b). Merriam-Webster (2014) states:
“A cantata is a piece of music, for singers and instruments, which usually has several movements
and often has a religious subject.”
In more literal terms, cantata is Italian for the word ‘sung’ (Wikipedia, 2014a) and a scenic cantata
is one that is ‘sacred’ or ‘secular’ and meant for stage with accompanying sets, costumes and
movement (Dorricott & Allan, 1990). Among the most well-known of all cantatas, the “Carmina
Burana”, written from 1935-1936, is no exception with its introductory (and concluding) movement,
“O Fortuna”, used in countless films as some of the most recognisable music ever written. Based
on poems from a book of thirteenth-century songs, discovered in 1803 at a monastery in southern
Germany, it deals with nature, love and the ‘free life’ (Dorricott & Allan, 1990). The medieval lyrics
of “O Fortuna”, specifically, complain about fate and fortune with the “personification of luck in
Roman mythology” (Wikipedia, 2014g). In medieval times, fortune was likened to a turning wheel,
bringing alternatively good or back luck (Dorricott & Allan, 1990) and the uncertainty of fortune was
regularly used as a motif in medieval literature (Betts, 2007).
Composed from 1935-36, Carl Orff was providing a bridge between impressionist and modern
music in a period known as the “Post Great War Years”. This period was arguably one of the most
surprising since composers ‘pulled’ in many contradicting and opposing directions (Naxos
Classical Music, 2014b). This is exemplified in the fact that “O Fortuna”, written well into the
twentieth century, was composed to be strongly reminiscent of the Middle Ages (around 1100s to
the 1400s). Some characteristics of medieval music can be seen in the table below (Deverich,
2013; San Mateo County Community College District, n.d.):
Element
Description of medieval music
Performance
Primarily vocal, instruments used to accompany vocal lines
Rhythm
No regular beat, complex, syncopations
Melody
Small melodic intervals, sacred melodies often based on church
modes
Harmony
Mixture of consonance and dissonance, parallel fifths and
octaves
Texture
Monophonic texture; heavy, dense, thick sound
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For Carl Orff to follow these characteristics of the Middle Ages, was a very twentieth-century
‘move’ in itself. This is shown in the table below on musical characteristics of the Modern Period
(Coates, 2008):
Element
Description of ‘modern’ music
Harmony
Traditional rules of harmony not followed, fifths/octaves moved freely
in parallel motion, underlying harmonies often unresolved, extended
chords, dissonances unprepared and unresolved
Tonality
Unconventional scale patterns (e.g. modes), bi-tonal, often atonal
Rhythm
Cross-rhythms and syncopation, sharp, very rhythmic, energised
Texture
Multi-layered
Dynamics
Often loud and confronting
Themes
Reflects anxieties, fears, pressures of contemporary life (in this case,
complaining about fortune in medieval life)
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Ludwig van Beethoven:
Best-known
compositions:
9 symphonies
5 concertos for piano
32 piano sonatas
16 string quartets
Chamber music
Choral works
Songs
work. Realising his condition was getting
increasingly worse; he threw himself into
writing what turned out to be some of his
greatest music – his piano sonatas. Sadly, by
1811, he stopped his public performances
since he could no longer hear his own music
(Prevot, The Era of Beethoven, 2013), and in
1826 he died, age 57, from a mere cold which
complicated health problems that he had
suffered his whole life (Davis, 2006). The
exact details of Beethoven’s death, however,
are one of music’s greatest mysteries with his
final words and his cause of death subject to
much disagreement. His official cause of
death was liver failure (Mitchell, 2014) and
the various autopsy findings were as listed
below (Wikipedia, 2014d):
 Shrunken liver due to heavy alcohol
consumption
Born
17 December, 1770
Died
26 March, 1827
Ludwig van Beethoven was a German composer bridging the
Classical and Romantic eras. He studied music under Joseph
Haydn after moving to Vienna in 1792 and because one of the
most famous and influential composers of all time (Wikipedia,
2014f; Prevot, The Era of Beethoven, 2013).
Unfortunately, Beethoven began to lose his hearing in 1796 due
to constant ringing in his ears which made it nearly impossible to
It was estimated between 10,000 and 30,000
people attended Beethoven’s funeral (Prevot,
Biography: Beethoven's Life, 2008; Wikipedia,
2014d).







Damage to aural nerves
Excess of fluid in his skull of “unusual thickness”
Calcareous growths on the kidney from painkiller abuse
Swollen spleen
Pancreatitis
Distended inner ear
Liver failure
As previously mentioned, Beethoven ‘threw’ himself into composing and wrote his Piano Sonata
No. 8 in C minor in 1798. Also known as “Sonata Pathétique”, Beethoven dedicated this piece to
his friend Prince Lichnowsky who is “remembered today for his patronage of music and his
relationships with Mozart and Beethoven” (Wikipedia, 2014e). Influence by his composition
teacher, Haydn, the “Pathétique Sonata” shows Beethoven’s classical side while still featuring a
lyrical melody-line reminiscent of the Romantic Period (Lemmon, 2009). The “Pathétique Sonata”
featured three movements:
1) “Grave – Allegro di molto e con brio”
2) “Adagio cantabile”
3) “Rondo: Allegro”
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Since it’s considered that Beethoven really was the ‘bridge’ between the Classical and Romantic
era, below is a comparison table of the typical musical characteristics (Coates, 2008):
Element
Classical Period
Romantic Period
TIME FRAME 1750-1820
1830-1920
Themes
Shared with ancient Greeks
Referred to the ‘golden age of
values of beauty, clarity and
virtuosos’
proportion
Texture
Concerned with balance,
Contrasting moods, freedom in
structure and precision;
form, dramatic contrast
homophonic styles; deceptively
simple; ‘regular’
Dynamics
Full spectrum of dynamics
Wider emotional range, an even
larger range of pitch and volume
Performance Demands elegance and pristine Rubato considered of
clarity, proportioned dynamics
importance, much use of the
and phrasing, observation of the pedal, predominantly legato
tiniest details (i.e. phrasing and
articulation), steady and
controlled
Tonality
Modulations to closely related
Richer harmonies, discords,
keys
wider range of notes
Melody
2-note phrase
Lyrical and passionate melodies;
longer, sweeping melodies;
often featuring chromaticism
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Analysis of “O Fortuna”:
“O Fortuna” is the opening and closing piece of the scenic cantata, “Carmina Burana”. It’s within a
section entitled, “Fortuna Imperatrix Mundi” along with a second piece “Fortuna Plango Vulnera”
(Classical Net, 2014). This section is, somewhat obviously, to do with the whole concept of fortune
since “O Fortuna” directly translates to “Oh Fortune” and forms a prologue to the work in which
acknowledges the changeable nature of fate affecting all humans; rich or poor, strong or weak
(Dorricott & Allan, 1990).
The great success of Carl Orff’s composition, “O Fortuna”, is that it’s seemingly simple yet
incredibly powerful. Before a detailed analysis is explored, the general concepts used to create a
medieval atmosphere can be seen:
WHAT
WHY
3rds, 5ths and parallel
A key concept of the Middle Ages is its simplicity which
motion
can be conveyed within simple harmony
Aeolian mode
Secular compositions were often based on a church
mode in medieval times. Aeolian mode beginning on D is
the mode also known as a ‘natural minor scale’.
No raised seventh – very ‘medieval’
D E F G A Bb C D
Asymmetrical
Sounds ‘free’
Block harmony
Create a declamatory effect
Discords
To show the harsh reality of life and fate. This is
exemplified in the dramatic opening discord which
doesn’t resolve until the final chord of the bar
Dissonance
Creates tension and provides drive which moves the
music forward because it ‘begs’ for release
Full chorus and
This is a metaphor because fate affects all people and
orchestra
the chorus are like observers of the wheel of fortune. The
full orchestra is only used for dramatic climax points…
Percussion instruments are constant since Orff believed
rhythm was most important.
Higher/doubled range
Doubled ranges or octaves make the music seem even
louder when the dynamics are already at extremes (i.e.
fortissimo)
Homophonic
“O Fortuna” is homophonic in that it has a chorus and an
accompaniment – it does, however, move in two ‘layers’.
The vocal layer is often monophonic and the
instrumental is sometimes even polyphonic. Thus, the
texture is inconstant and difficult to define.
Lyrics
(provide English translation)
The lyrics tell of how the moon is another metaphor for
fate and fortune. Like the moon ‘changes’
(waxing/waning), so does fortune – “first oppresses then
soothes”. The final line of the lyrics is about everyone
coming together to realise that they are all at the mercy
of fortune. The lyrics translate to “everyone weep with
me” and then the chorus’ final note is held for 9 bars
while the orchestra plays a fast and intense passage at
fortississimo (fff) right until the very end. In this case the
orchestra represents the merciless power of destiny and
the chorus represent the people who are slaves to
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Melodic contour
Melodic ostinato
Ostinato
Pedal notes
Rhythmic patterns
Strophic form
Structural pattern
Tempo – pesante
Terraced dynamics
Tierce de Picardie
Timpani
‘Train tracks’
Triple metre
fortune.
The contour of the melody is very smooth. This is due to
the fact that in medieval times music notation was
through neumes which didn’t really allow for extreme
melodies. An example can be seen in the image below
(The Schøyen Collection, 2011):
Neumes were the basic
musical notation used
before invention of
notation on a five-line
staff (Wikipedia, 2014i).
The lyrics speak of the “wheel of fortune” and the
melodic ostinato conveys a turning motion.
Ostinato in Italian means ‘stubborn’, pointing to the
insistence of the continually repeating musical figure. Its
stubbornness portrays the ruthless wheel of fortune.
unity and brings it all together
The obsessively repetitive rhythms make for a static and
primitive quality in keeping with the medieval theme. The
repetition is balanced by strong contrasts within the
dynamics.
Strophic form is where each stanza of lyrics has the
same melody. This further conveys repetition and the
turning motion.
There is this same pattern within the whole piece (in the
melody, the form, etc.) of short-short-long. An example of
this is in the first section – the first and second phrases
are short and the third is elongated. This continues
throughout the whole piece and keeps it cohesive.
Pesante means ‘heavily’ – i.e. the burden of destiny
Building intensities
Unexpected, fortune has power over all and is
uncontrollable. It further heightens the drama
Suggests power; menacing
The ‘train tracks’ are formally known as ‘caesurae’ which
indicates a brief, silent pause during which time is not
counted. Miss Ellena Papas (2014) described the use of
the caesura is to “take a breath because all hell is about
to break loose”. This is true in that the intensity of the
piece dramatically escalades after the caesura.
Like a waltz, the triple metre also suggests a turning
motion.
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As already stated, the full orchestra was used as a metaphor because fate affects all people.
Therefore there are parts for flute, oboe, English horn, clarinets, bassoons, horn, trumpet,
trombone, tuba, timpani, cymbals, full choir (SATB), piano, violins, viola, cello and contrabass. The
first page the full score is shown below:
The form of “O Fortuna” cannot be easily classified like ‘sonata’ form or ‘rondo’ form. It is,
however, in two distinctly different parts. The first part (called ‘A’ for the purpose of this analysis) is
the shorter of the two, lasting for only 4 bars. The second part (‘B’) goes for the remainder of the
piece – 97 bars. For analytical reasons, this has then been broken into B1.a, B1.b, B2.a, B2.b and
CODA so as to acknowledge identically repeated sub-sections.
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Section A
Section ‘A’ goes for only 4 bars,
which is extremely short in
comparison to the ‘B’ section. To
make up for the short duration,
the time signature is in the three
semibreves per bar which
sounds very heavy, slow and
powerful. The lyrics in the
beginning are simply “o fortuna”, and to convey fortune’s power the dynamics are at fortissimo
which means ‘very loudly’. It’s a bold statement right from the very start. There is also syncopation,
as the first note doesn’t start on the ‘strong’ beat of the bar, and a deliberate clash in the first
sound that’s heard. This creates tension and begs for release although the dissonance never
actually resolves until the next section. In keeping with the short-short-long pattern, the third
phrase of section ‘A’ is much longer to keep the balance and is ‘pressing on faster’, as told by
poco stringendo.
Section B1
The ‘B’ section is almost four times the speed of
section ‘A’ as not only has it moved from three
semibreves (per bar) to three minims, but the
tempo has also doubled from 60 minim beats per
bar to 120-136 minim beats per bar. In addition, its
dynamics are very contrasting. The ‘A’ section was
at fortissimo and section ‘B1’ is reduced pack to
pianissimo (very softly), yet while it is very soft,
each note is accented as mezzo staccato
(detached) so the chorus comes across as a
forceful whisper.
(a)
The ‘B1.a’
section goes for
16 bars of a
simple melody with a range of only 3 notes (from E to G).
The texture is so much more diminished than section ‘A’
and all the elements are kept relatively simplistic – the
chorus is ‘chanting’ in unison; the texture is softer and
lighter. The accompaniment is also extremely repetitive
with a syncopated ostinato that occurs three times in two
bars within the bassoon, the piano, the violin, the viola
and the cello parts. This ostinato occurs 84 times in the
entire ‘B1’ section.
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(b)
‘B1.b’ sounds relatively similar to ‘B1.a’ although there are some subtle
differences – for example, it is half the length, lasting for only 8 bars. There
are also added parts for flute, clarinet and contrabassoon, and the choir
splits into three sections – the soprano and bass parts are the same, while
the altos are a third below and the tenors are on an ‘A’ the whole time.
These subtle differences create layers in the piece to slowly rebuild since it
was at fortissimo in section ‘A’ and dropped right back down for section ‘B1’.
(a)
‘B1.a’ then repeats and the chorus cuts back to unison which creates a
‘swelling’ effect as the piece builds and thins over and over again. The
dynamics are also reinforced as sempre pp which means ‘always very soft’.
(b)
Then ‘B1.b’ returns as the accompaniment thickens slightly and the music
swells.
(b)
The whole ‘B1.b’ section
repeats again one last
time which acts as a preparation for ‘B2’. There’s
been a huge contrast in dynamics followed by a long section in pianissimo so this repeated section
reinforces what has been heard so far. There is however, a minor change in the last phrase (bars
57-60), making it sound more ‘final’, which indicates something new is about to happen.
Section B2
The piece starts off huge and bold but then it fades away to almost
nothing, gradually building back up again. Just before the ‘B2’ section
begins, there is the use of a caesura (also known as the ‘train tracks’).
This is essentially like a dramatic pause before chaos and, from the ‘B2’
section until the end; it is as if “the powers of darkness have been
unleashed with great force and passion” (Papas, 2014). To further
increase the drama, every instrument is playing and most are on the
ostinato that was first introduced in ‘B1’. This ostinato of cross-rhythms
is made up of the tonic note (D), C and A. D and A are a fifth a part
which leaves the harmony
‘open’ as you can’t tell whether
it’s supposed to be major or minor. The added C creates
dissonance that doesn’t quite resolve because when the C
isn’t played in one part, it’s played in another part. This
can be seen in the music for the violin and viola.
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(a)
The ‘B2’ section brings a similar melody with an extreme change in dynamics and a thicker
accompaniment. The dynamics go from pianissimo and return back up to fortissimo, while the
tempo also increases to 144 minim beats per bar. The whole aim of this section is to be dramatic,
loud and fierce – when the dynamics are already at extremes, octaves are used within the
harmony to create an effect that sounds even louder and more ‘full’. Within the harmony, certain
parts hold ‘pedal notes’, like the contrabassoon, trombone, tuba and contrabass parts. At the
same time, the string instruments copy the chorus as they sing with a dramatically enlarged range
and accented notes.
This texture is quite
homophonic in that it
has a definite chorus
and accompaniment.
Finally, the word
martellatissimo is
introduced within the piano accompaniment. This word means ‘heavily hammered’ although it is
not often used. If the word is broken up, the first part is ‘martel’, in English, means a hammer-like
weapon (Dictionary.com, 2014) and the second part is a commonly used suffix, ‘issimo’, meaning
‘extremely’ or ‘remarkably’.
(b)
‘B2.b’ is a lot like ‘B2.a’… the only difference is that the accompaniment is expanded into thirds in
some places (adding interest). Thirds are introduced within the horn, soprano, tenor, viola and
cello parts. The cymbals are also played much more frequently adding further tension and drama.
Lastly, the melody sung by the chorus is suddenly in
smooth thirds. This is extremely contrasting since
everything preceding it has been harsh and striking – a
reason for its smoothness is that it demonstrates the
smooth and calm side of fate before jumping back to a
completely extreme coda. This is like a metaphor for the
calm before the storm.
CODA
Finally, just as it seems as though “O Fortuna” has reached its peak, the coda is added so that it
goes out on a ‘bang’. Here, the tempo increases, there is a crescendo to fff (fortississimo) and
there’s a tierce de Picardie with the addition
of the F sharp within the accompaniment. A
tierce de Picardie is when a major chord is
used at the end of a piece in a minor key and
portrays the contrast and duality of life. On
one hand it’s ‘good’ in the major-sounding
harmony and the long held notes of the
chorus. In comparison, the busy
accompaniment and the dissonance of the C
natural create an ‘evil’ side. When these two
are played at the same time it demonstrates
the how uncontrollable and unpredictable the
nature of fortune is.
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Analysis of “Adagio Cantabile”:
“Adagio Cantabile” is the second movement of Beethoven’s “Sonata Pathétique”, formally known
as his Piano Sonata No. 8 in C minor, Op. 13. When the piece was written, the word ‘pathetic’ did
not convey pity or misery, rather it meant ‘emotional’ and in some cases ‘heartbreaking’. The title
also mentions ‘sonata’ – the first movement of a sonata is typically in sonata form (Exposition,
Development and Recapitulation); however, “Adagio Cantabile” is the second movement so it is in
‘rondo’ form. The word ‘sonata’ comes from the Italian verb ‘sonare’, meaning ‘to sound’, and is a
solo instrumental piece in several movements (in this case there’s three) (Coates, 2008).
Before a detailed analysis is explored, the general concepts used to create this Classical
‘perfection’ can be seen:
WHAT
WHY
A flat major
Beethoven’s signature key was C minor because he felt this
key to be “powerful and emotionally stormy” (Wikipedia,
2014f; Wikipedia, 2014h). “Adagio Cantabile” is in A flat
major which is the subdominant relative major of C minor.
Adagio cantabile
Added note chords
Contrary motion
Dotted notes
Homophony
Proportional
Rondo form
Simple duple
Simplicity
Adagio cantabile is a tempo meaning ‘slowly, in a singing
style’. Typical of a slow movement, Beethoven follows
compositional rules of the Classical era while featuring the
lyrical melody of the Romantic era.
Added note chords and inversion within the harmony add
‘colour’ and richness of tone underlying a seemingly simple
composition. Added notes also create interest in repetitive
chordal patterns.
Creates balance; seen as perfection in the Classical Period
Hovering; lingering
Emphasising a single melody line (melody with
accompaniment), characteristic of the Classical Period
The perfect proportions of Beethoven’s composition seem to
suspend time giving it a warm and spacious aura
Sections ABACA + Coda… perfectly and neatly structured
exemplifying Classical values. The main theme ‘A’ sounds at
least three times, separated by two different and contrasting
sections.
Simple duple means two crotchet beats in a bar. As the
name suggests, this is a ‘simple’ time signature which fits in
with the Classical era of its composition. It allows for the 2bar phrases and 2-note phrases that were so popular at that
time.
Beethoven did not add anything ‘extra’ within the “Adagio
Cantabile”. This is like how less is ‘more’ and gives an
exquisite sound without unnecessary nonsense.
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Section A
Section ‘A’ begins piano
(softly) in A flat major with
the smoothly-contoured
melody written in the bass
clef. This is perfect in its
simplicity – it starts off small
so that there’s room to grow
later on. The dominant note
of E flat is repeated which
opens up the harmony,
making the listener unsure if
it’s major or minor. This
creates a ‘question’ which
begs to be answered. In the same way, the tonic note isn’t used in the melody until the end of the
section. The avoided tonic highlights the emotion and even just before the tonic is to be played
there is a suspension where both notes on either side are held. This all serves to intensify the
tension so that when the tonic is finally heard it is even more beautifully resolved.
The semiquavers within the harmony create safety and comfort within the mood. The bass
notes are in crotchets until the quavers in bar 3 which drive the music forward. In true classical
form, the harmony begins on chord I, hovers around the dominant chord in bar 4 and finishes with
a perfect cadence. The bass is also in contrary motion with the melody, exemplifying ideal
counterpoint in ‘ultimate’ composition.
At the end of bar 8, there are two triplets which are accented with staccatos. This is
contrasting and gives a glimpse of what’s to come later on in the piece (i.e. section ‘C’).
Section A1
‘A1’ is much like the original ‘A’ section except it’s slightly fuller with the addition of harmony under
the melody in the treble clef. This is new and confirming, moving in contrary motion so it sounds
reassuring. To keep interest the melody is now an octave higher in the treble clef – this allows
more room for harmony and sounds more complete while maintaining a soft pitch.
The
arpeggios in bars 12 and 13 are a gentle reminder that something is going to change – arpeggios
are a form of scale and section ‘B’ introduces quite a scalic melody. The pause at the end of bar
16 is a warning that a new section is
about to begin.
Section B
Section ‘B’ is the first ‘new’ section and thus goes for a
little bit longer – 12 bars instead of the usual 8. ‘B’ starts
off with a modulation to the relative minor which is F
minor. The melody uses clever repetition (bars 17-19)
where it is repeated three times while the C simply jumps
up and down an octave. The texture, however, feels
shallower as the harmony turns into block
chords without a bass line. This effectively
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cuts the piece back so it can rebuild. As the tension increases the block chords get higher and
higher until they’re sitting within the treble clef.
At the end of bar 20 there is a second modulation
to E flat major with the help of the B natural within the
bar. E flat major is the dominant of A flat major and
allows for the transition to be smoother when it does
return to the ‘A’ section.
In bar 24, the bass line returns, which adds
comfort to a previously foreign section, it also signals
that the theme will reappearance soon
which it does with the modulation back to A
flat major in bars 27-29. This transition is
drawn out with the use of chromaticism in
the melody adding tension and ‘drive’. This
tension is increased with crescendos until
the ‘A’ section returns at a tender pianissimo.
Section A
After a tension-filled ‘B’ section, the ‘A’ section plays at piano (softly). There was a lot of suspense
for its return and the soft dynamics bring further attention to the beautiful, lyrical melody.
This ‘A’ section is identical to the original ‘A’ section except for some minor changes such
as the exclusion of the triplets that were in the original section ‘A’.
Section C
Section ‘C’ is again longer than both the ‘A’ and the ‘B’ sections for further contrast. This section
features the triplets that were hinted at in bar 8 of “Adagio Cantabile”. From this section and
onwards, the rest of the piece is in triplets, adding contrast and interest to the repeated ‘A’
sections. This section also utilises the 2-note phrase characteristic of the Classical Period (e.g.
bars 38, 40 and 46).
The ‘C’ section also brings a modulation to the relative minor of A flat minor. This closely
related key clashes since it is so similar yet obviously
minor. Almost wearily, this contrasting section comes in
at pianissimo to gently change the subject. There are
also chromatic countermelodies explored in bars 38, 40
and 46. Countermelodies have not been present in the
piece so far, thus they add balance and interest.
This section is also full of block harmonies which
are strong and more powerful than the serene simplicity of the ‘A’ sections. With a crescendo, the
piece further modulates to E major in bar 42. This comes across quite suddenly and is
emphasised with sforzando (a strong accent) markings. More contrast is heard with the major
second chords (including an added seventh) in bar 43. Second chords are typically minor yet
Beethoven has composed with a major second chord to add drama.
After a modulation to E major
there is a point of rest at bar 44 and
then continues on at pianissimo with a
thinned texture. This is surprising and
drives the piece forward because of
its contrast.
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To conclude section ‘C’, arpeggios are
seen in the bass (bars 48-50) and then the
piece modulates back to the main key of A flat
major. The chords in these bars are
particularly strange to try and classify since it
is modulating for a major chord to another
major chord that is unrelated. To emphasise
this tension, Beethoven used rinforzando (reinforcing the tone) markings to confirm what is heard.
Section A2
After a wildly complex section ‘C’, the ‘A2’ is a welcome change. It is very, very similar to the
original ‘A’ section except for the obvious triplets. This is now the third time the theme has
repeated; therefore the triplets keep the piece moving.
Section A3
‘A3’ repeats ‘A2’ quite like how ‘A1’ repeated the main ‘A’ theme at the beginning. It’s much like its
preceding section except the harmony is doubled within the counterpoint and the melody is played
an octave higher. Since it is the final ‘A’ section to be heard, this reaffirms what is already known
about the piece while still including subtle changes. Beethoven’s technique in effectively using
repetition shows how his composition of the “Pathétique Sonata” is truly beautiful. He should his
expertise in repeating his good ideas while ensuring the piece always moves in such an
exquisitely-crafted manner.
CODA
The coda uses ornamentations like the turn in bar 68 and rinforzando markings to add interest.
Beethoven also employs clever repetitions (e.g. bars 67 and 69) and sequences (bars 70-71).
These techniques confirm comfort, safety and warmth.
To finish off a beautiful piece, the coda is used to ensure finality after already hearing
multiple repetitions of the ‘A’ sections. It’s almost another contrasting section with its block
harmonies and ornamentations (such as the acciaccaturas and the turns) but the piece is superbly
finished at pianissimo with its perfect cadences and its repeated tonic chord at the end (with the
added fermata/pause). This highlights a loving and lingering mood while subtly emphasising the
stunning serenity of the piece, “Adagio Cantabile”.
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Chelsea Hudson
Compare and Contrast:
Music is powerful medium to for listeners to seek feelings such as comfort and for composers to
tell their story – may it be bold or beautiful. An example of a bold piece is the well-known “O
Fortuna” (from “Carmina Burana”) by composer Carl Orff. In comparison, there are many
exquisitely beautiful pieces such as “Adagio Cantabile” (the second movement from Piano Sonata
No. 8 in C minor, Op. 13). To compare these pieces, we must look to the elements of music…
Duration
“O Fortuna” is a brilliantly powerful piece with a strong defined pulse given by the timpani. Unlike
“Adagio Cantabile”, it changes time signature from three semibreves to three minims per bar. It is
also heavily syncopated, heavily accented and very rhythmic since Orff valued rhythm above all
else. On the other hand, “Adagio Cantabile” is soft and gentle. It has a time signature of simple
duple (two crotchet beats per bar), isn’t really syncopated and accents are used sparingly. Like “O
Fortuna”, the rhythm is clear and concise which was characteristic of ‘perfect’ proportion in
performance of Classical-style music.
Expressive Devices
Dynamics and contrast were most obvious expressive devices in both pieces. While “O Fortuna”
jumped from one extreme to the next, “Adagio Cantabile” was mainly played very softly and
tenderly with crescendos, sforzandos and rinforzandos used, only occasionally, for added interest.
In terms of contrast, “O Fortuna” was well constructed with a bold statement to start off with before
completely dropping off and rebuilding again; always extreme. “Adagio Cantabile” was more
predictable in this respect with more subtle contrasts.
Pitch
The melody in “O Fortuna” was very smooth with small ranges within the phrase. Both pieces,
however, had very repetitive melodies although very cleverly composed with a constant interest
and ‘drive’. The harmony was always extremely repetitive and quite simple in “O Fortuna”.
Although it was modal and very dissonant, there was not much harmonic change other than the
unexpected, yet effective, tierce de Picardie. In comparison, “Adagio Cantabile” had multiple
modulations and was perfectly balanced with chord progressions and countermelodies as was
expected in the Classical Period.
Structure
In terms of structure, “O Fortuna” had a very simple strophic form with two main contrasting
sections and a coda (like “Adagio Cantabile”). In saying that, it could be argued that almost the
whole piece was a chant in that it was incredibly repetitive with its ostinatos. On the other hand,
“Adagio Cantabile” was structure in a perfect rondo form with a coda. The clever repetition and
sequences were influenced by Haydn’s teaching of Classical composition and the treatment of
thematic material was evidently characteristic of the era.
Texture
“O Fortuna” had an incredible dense texture particularly at its start and finish. It utilised a full
chorus and full orchestra because its complaint about fortune affects all people. In saying this, it
had great contrast when in thinned and had to gradually rebuild up to a full texture. “O Fortuna”
could be defined as homophonic but is hard to classify in this respect because it is sometimes
monophonic within the chorus and polyphonic within the accompaniment. In contrast, “Adagio
Cantabile” is clearly homophonic with its defined melody and accompaniment.
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Chelsea Hudson
Mood
The mood of “O Fortuna” could be described as dramatic, bold, forceful, intense, and grounded
(because of its natural minor tonality). It could also be described as ‘primitive’ as Carl Orff intended
for it to be reminiscent of the Middle Ages. His inspiration was due to the fact that the lyrics he
used were from a medieval set of poems. On the contrary, “Adagio Cantabile” could only be
described as beautiful, loving, lingering, calm, serene and proportional. These were ideals valued
by Classical composers at the time.
… While both pieces are so blatantly different they do have multiple similarities – for example, they
both have suspenseful moods. “O Fortuna” is written for a chorus and thus has lyrics, yet “Adagio
Cantabile” is also undeniably lyrical even without the spoken word. They both can be seemingly
simple pieces, yet also incredibly powerful. This is the beauty of music.
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Chelsea Hudson
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